Treacherous Usurpation and Regicide

All treacherous ministers desire to follow the ruler’s inclinations in order to obtain a position of favor and intimacy. Therefore, what the ruler considers good, the minister praises; what the ruler detests, the minister condemns. It is a constant principle of human nature that those who share the same preferences affirm each other, while those with differing preferences deny each other. Now, what the minister praises is precisely what the ruler affirms—this is called “shared approval”; what the minister condemns is precisely what the ruler rejects—this is called “shared disapproval.” A situation where preferences are aligned yet opposition exists has never been heard of. This is the method by which ministers gain trust and favor. That treacherous ministers can, by virtue of their trusted and favored position, advance or dismiss the host of ministers through praise and blame, is because the ruler does not employ techniques to control them, nor does he use verification to scrutinize them. He is sure to trust their present words based on past alignment with himself—this is how favored ministers are able to deceive the ruler and accomplish their private interests. Thus, the ruler above is inevitably deceived, while the minister below inevitably wields power—this is called a “minister who monopolizes the ruler.”

When a state has a minister who monopolizes the ruler, then the host of ministers cannot exhaust their wisdom and strength to offer loyalty, and the various officials cannot uphold public law to achieve merit. By what evidence can this be proven? Seeking what is safe and beneficial, avoiding what is dangerous and harmful—this is human nature. Now, if a minister exerts effort to establish merit, exhausts his wisdom and offers loyalty, yet ends up personally distressed and his family impoverished, with both father and son suffering calamities; while those who commit treacherous acts to deceive the ruler and bribe the powerful with wealth and goods become personally honored and their families wealthy, with both father and son enjoying favors—how could a person abandon the path of safety and benefit to walk into a situation of danger and harm? When governance is so mistaken, and the ruler wishes that below there be no treachery and that officials uphold public law, it is impossible—and this is also quite evident. Thus, the close attendants know that loyalty and trustworthiness cannot bring safety and benefit, and they are sure to say: “If I serve the ruler with loyalty and trust, accumulating merit to seek safety, it is like a blind man wanting to know the truth of black and white—surely hopeless. If I use righteousness to teach and practice correct principles, not seeking wealth and honor, serving the ruler to seek safety, it is like a deaf man wanting to distinguish the clarity of sounds—even more hopeless. Since neither method can bring safety, how can I not collude with others, deceive the ruler, and commit treacherous acts for private gain to curry favor with the powerful?” Thus, they are sure to disregard the ruler’s righteousness. The various officials also know that uprightness cannot bring safety, and they are sure to say: “If I serve the ruler with incorruptibility to seek safety, it is like having no compass or square yet wanting to draw circles and squares—surely hopeless. If I use adherence to law and avoidance of factionalism to administer the office and seek safety, it is like scratching the top of the head with the foot—even more hopeless. Since neither method can bring safety, how can I not abandon the law and practice private gain to curry favor with the powerful?” Thus, they are sure to disregard the ruler’s laws. Therefore, those who serve private interests and become powerful are many, while those who serve the ruler according to law are few. Consequently, the ruler above is isolated, while the ministers below form private cliques—this is the reason Tian Chengzi was able to assassinate Duke Jian of Qi.

A minister who possesses the Art of Governance, as a subject, can present words of technique, clarifying the ruler’s laws above and restraining treacherous ministers below, thereby honoring the ruler and stabilizing the state. Therefore, when words of technique are presented before the ruler, then rewards and punishments are sure to follow in their implementation. If the ruler truly understands the technique of the sage and does not cling to vulgar opinions, judging right and wrong based on names and realities, examining words through verification, then the close attendants, knowing that deception cannot bring safety, are sure to say: “If I do not remove treacherous and private acts, exerting effort and exhausting wisdom to serve the ruler, but instead collude with others and recklessly praise or blame to seek safety, it is like carrying a burden of a thousand jun and falling into an immeasurable deep abyss while seeking to live—surely hopeless.” The various officials also know that committing treacherous acts cannot bring safety, and they are sure to say: “If I do not use incorruptibility and uprightness to uphold public law, but instead use greed to bend the law for private gain, it is like climbing to the peak of a high mountain and falling into the bottom of a deep valley while seeking to live—surely hopeless.” When the paths of safety and danger are so clear, how could close attendants use empty words to deceive the ruler, and how would various officials dare to use greed to oppress the people? Therefore, ministers can offer loyalty without being obstructed, and subordinates can uphold their duties without harboring resentment. This is the method by which Guan Zhong governed Qi and Shang Yang made Qin strong.

From this perspective, when a sage governs a state, he fundamentally possesses methods that make people unable to avoid loving him, rather than relying on others to exert effort for him out of love. Relying on others to exert effort for him out of love is dangerous; relying on my having methods that make them unable to do otherwise is safe. Between ruler and minister there is no bond of flesh and blood; if the upright path can bring benefit, then ministers will exert effort to serve the ruler; if the upright path cannot bring safety, then ministers will practice private gain to offend the ruler. An enlightened ruler understands this principle, so he establishes the path of benefit and harm to illuminate it for the world. Therefore, even if the ruler does not personally instruct the various officials with his mouth, nor search for treachery with his eyes, the state is already well-governed. The ruler is not one whose eyes are as sharp as Li Lou to be considered clear-sighted, nor one whose ears are as acute as Shi Kuang to be considered wise. If the eyes, without relying on technique, are considered clear-sighted only by seeing, then what is seen is limited—this is not a method to avoid being obstructed. If the ears, without relying on power, are considered wise only by hearing, then what is heard is limited—this is not a method to avoid being deceived. An enlightened ruler makes the whole world unable to avoid seeing for him, and makes the whole world unable to avoid hearing for him. Therefore, though he resides deep in the palace, his clear-sightedness illuminates the four seas within, and the world cannot obstruct or deceive him. Why is this? Because the method of darkness and chaos is abolished, and the power of intelligence and wisdom flourishes. Thus, states skilled in employing power are stable, while those that do not know how to rely on power are dangerous. In ancient times, the customs of Qin were such that ruler and minister abandoned the law and practiced private gain, so the state was chaotic, the army weak, and the ruler’s position low. Shang Yang persuaded Duke Xiao of Qin to change the laws and transform customs, make public standards clear, reward the reporting of treachery, obstruct commerce and crafts, and benefit agriculture. At that time, the people of Qin were accustomed to old customs, believing that crimes could be pardoned and that those without merit could become honored and prominent, so they lightly violated the new laws. Therefore, those who violated the new laws were punished severely and with certainty; those who reported treachery were rewarded generously and with trustworthiness. Thus, no treacherous person went uncaught, and those punished were many. The people resented this, and the public clamor reached the ruler’s ears daily. Duke Xiao of Qin did not heed these discussions but continued to implement Shang Yang’s laws. Later, the people came to know that crimes would certainly result in execution, and that those who reported private treachery were many, so the people dared not break the law, and punishments had no place to be applied. Therefore, the state was stable and the army strong, the territory vast and the ruler honored. The reason for this was that the punishment for concealing crimes was heavy, and the reward for reporting treachery was generous. This too is the method for making the world see for you and hear for you. The supreme technique for governing the state is already quite clear, yet the scholars of the world do not understand it.

Moreover, the foolish scholars of the world, unaware of the true conditions of order and chaos, ceaselessly recite ancient texts in great volume, thereby disturbing the governance of their era. Their wisdom is insufficient to avoid pitfalls and traps, yet they recklessly slander those who possess methods of governance. Those who heed their words become endangered; those who adopt their plans fall into chaos. This is the height of folly and the depth of calamity. They share the reputation of being discussants with those who possess methods, but their actual substance differs by a thousand or ten thousand miles—this is a case of identical names but different realities. The foolish scholars of the world, compared to those with methods, are like ant hills set against a lofty mountain; the distance between them is immense. As for the sage, he examines the substance of right and wrong and perceives the true conditions of order and chaos. Thus, when the sage governs a state, he rectifies and clarifies the laws and establishes severe punishments, using them to rescue the people from disorder and remove the calamities of the world, so that the strong do not oppress the weak, the many do not bully the few, the elderly can end their days in peace, young orphans can grow up, borders are not invaded, ruler and minister draw close to each other, father and son preserve each other, and there is no misfortune of death or capture. This is the deepest of achievements! The foolish, not understanding this, instead regard it as tyranny. The foolish indeed desire stability, yet detest the means by which stability is achieved; they all detest danger, yet delight in the means that lead to danger. How is this known? Severe punishments and heavy penalties are what the people detest, yet they are the means by which the state is stabilized; pitying the people and lightening punishments are what the people delight in, yet they are the means by which the state is endangered. When the sage establishes laws to govern the state, he must go against the customs of the age and conform to the Way. Those who understand this are aligned with righteousness and differ from the common world; those who do not understand are opposed to righteousness and align with the common world. Since few in the world understand this, righteousness is thereby denied.

To dwell in a position contrary to righteousness, to suffer the slander of the multitude, to be immersed in the opinions of the age, and yet to wish to face a stern ruler to seek safety—is this not extremely difficult! This is why wise scholars die without ever attaining prominence in the world. Lord Chunshen, younger brother of King Zhuang of Chu, had a beloved concubine named Yu. Lord Chunshen’s principal wife had a son named Jia. Yu desired Lord Chunshen to cast aside his principal wife, so she wounded her own body, showed it to Lord Chunshen, and wept, saying: “To be able to serve you as your concubine is my great fortune. Even so, if I obey the lady, I cannot serve you; if I serve you, I cannot obey the lady. I am inherently unworthy, and my strength is insufficient to serve two masters; circumstances do not allow me to obey both. Rather than die at the lady’s hands, I beg you to grant me death before your eyes. If I am put to death, and you later favor another in my place, I hope you will surely investigate carefully, so as not to be laughed at.” Lord Chunshen then believed the deceit of the concubine Yu and cast aside his principal wife. Yu also desired to kill Jia, so that her own son could become the heir. She then tore the lining of her own undergarment, showed it to Lord Chunshen, and wept, saying: “I have enjoyed your favor for a long time now. Jia is certainly aware of this, yet today he attempted to force himself on me. I struggled with him, and he tore my garment. This child’s unfilial conduct is without equal.” Lord Chunshen, enraged, killed Jia. Thus, the wife was cast aside because of the concubine Yu’s deceit, and the son died because of it. From this we see that a father’s love for his son can still be destroyed by slander. The interaction between ruler and minister lacks the intimacy of father and son, and the slanderous words of the many ministers are not limited to the mouth of a single concubine. So why be surprised that worthy and sage men are killed? This is why Shang Yang was torn apart by chariots in Qin, and Wu Qi was dismembered in Chu. In general, as for those who act as ministers, those who have crimes certainly do not wish to be executed, and those without merit all desire to be honored and prominent. Yet when the sage governs a state, rewards are not bestowed on those without merit, and punishments are surely applied to those who have crimes. If this is so, then those who possess methods, as ministers, are inherently easy to be framed by treacherous favorites near the ruler, and only an enlightened ruler can heed their proposals.

Scholars of the world who counsel rulers do not say, “One must rely on the authority of stern power to restrain treacherous ministers,” but instead all say, “Benevolence, righteousness, kindness, and grace are sufficient.” Rulers of the world praise the reputation of benevolence and righteousness without examining their actual effects. Consequently, in severe cases, the state perishes and the ruler dies; in minor cases, territory is diminished and the ruler’s position is degraded. How can this be proven? Giving alms to the poor is what the world calls benevolence and righteousness; pitying the common people and being unable to bear executing or punishing them is what the world calls kindness and grace. If alms are given to the poor, then those without merit receive rewards; if one cannot bear to execute or punish, then the violent and rebellious will not cease. When the state has people who receive rewards without merit, then the people will not strive externally to resist enemies and cut off heads, nor internally to urgently labor in farming and toil diligently; they will all desire to use wealth and goods to bribe the rich and noble, to do private acts of kindness to establish a reputation, thereby obtaining high office and generous emoluments. Thus, treacherous and selfish ministers grow increasingly numerous, and the violent and rebellious become ever more powerful; if the state does not perish under these circumstances, what else can be expected? Harsh punishments are what the people fear; heavy penalties are what the people detest. Therefore, the sage sets forth what the people fear to prohibit wickedness and establishes what the people detest to prevent treachery; thus the state is secure and rebellion does not arise. I therefore understand that benevolence, righteousness, kindness, and grace are insufficient for use, while harsh punishments and heavy penalties can be employed to govern the state. Without the power of the whip and the precaution of the bit and bridle, even Zao Fu could not tame a horse; without the rules of the compass and square and the standard of the plumb line, even Wang Er could not make things square or round; without the authority of stern power and the laws of reward and punishment, even Yao and Shun could not govern the state well. Now the rulers of the world all lightly discard heavy punishments and severe execution, practice kindness and grace, and yet wish to achieve the enterprise of a hegemon or true king—this is also impossible. Therefore, a skilled ruler makes rewards clear and sets out benefits to encourage the people, so that the people receive rewards based on merit, not because of benevolence and righteousness; he uses harsh punishments and heavy penalties to prohibit the people, so that the people are executed for crimes, not pardoned out of kindness and grace. Thus, those without merit entertain no hopes, and those with crimes do not escape by luck. Relying on sturdy carriages and fine horses, one can overcome the dangers of slopes and defiles on land; relying on the stability of boats and the convenience of oars, one can forever cross the difficulties of rivers and streams; mastering the strategy of methods and techniques, and implementing heavy punishments and severe execution, one can achieve the enterprise of a hegemon or true king. Governing a state with methods, techniques, rewards, and punishments is like having sturdy carriages and fine horses when traveling on land, and light boats and convenient oars when traveling on water. Those who rely on them ultimately achieve success. Yi Yin obtained them, and Tang of Shang thereby became king; Guan Zhong obtained them, and Duke Huan of Qi thereby became hegemon; Shang Yang obtained them, and the state of Qin thereby became powerful. These three men all understood the techniques of hegemons and true kings, were clear about the principles of governing and strengthening, and were not constrained by the vulgar opinions of the world; they exactly matched the intentions of enlightened rulers of their times, who could directly employ them as common scholars, elevating them to the positions of ministers and chancellors. When they held office and governed the state, they produced the actual effect of ennobling the ruler and expanding territory—these are what are called worthy ministers. Tang of Shang obtained Yi Yin and, relying on a territory of a hundred li, became the Son of Heaven; Duke Huan of Qi obtained Guan Zhong and became the foremost of the Five Hegemons, assembling the feudal lords many times and once setting the world right; Duke Xiao of Qin obtained Shang Yang, and his territory thereby expanded, his army thereby grew strong. Thus, with loyal ministers, there is no external trouble from enemy states, no internal worry from rebellious ministers, the state endures long in peace and security under Heaven, and their fame is transmitted to later generations—this is what is meant by a loyal minister. As for Yu Rang, who served as a minister to Zhibo: above, he could not persuade his ruler to understand the principles of methods and techniques to avoid the calamity of disaster; below, he could not command his followers to stabilize his state. When Zhao Xiangzi killed Zhibo, Yu Rang actually blackened his own skin, cut off his nose, and mutilated his appearance to avenge Zhibo against Zhao Xiangzi. Although this had the reputation of sacrificing his body and losing his life to show loyalty to his ruler, it was of no benefit whatsoever to Zhibo. This is what I despise, yet the rulers of the world consider him a loyal minister and honor him. In ancient times, there were Boyi and Shuqi. When King Wu offered them the world and they did not accept it, both starved to death on Mount Shouyang. Ministers like these do not fear heavy punishments, do not covet great rewards; they cannot be prohibited by punishments, nor can they be driven by rewards—these are called useless ministers. These are what I despise and would discard, yet the rulers of the world consider them worthy and seek them out.

A proverb says: “A man with leprosy pities the ruler.” This is an irreverent saying. Nevertheless, in ancient times there were no baseless proverbs, and it cannot be examined carelessly. This is said about rulers who are seized, assassinated, or die. If a ruler has no methods to control his ministers, even if he is long-lived and has fine talents, his great ministers will still seize the opportunity to grasp power, monopolize government affairs, make arbitrary decisions, and each busy himself with his own private interests. They fear the ruler’s father, elder brothers, and heroic and outstanding men, and rely on the ruler’s power to prevent themselves from being prohibited or killed. Thus, they kill worthy and elderly rulers and establish young and weak ones, depose the rightful heirs and set up those who ought not to be established. Therefore, the Spring and Autumn Annals records: “The prince of Chu, Wei, was about to go to Zheng on a diplomatic mission. Before he had left the state’s borders, he heard that the king of Chu was ill and turned back. He then entered the palace to inquire about the illness, used his cap strings to strangle the king of Chu, and killed him, then established himself as king. In Qi, Cui Zhu’s wife was very beautiful, and Duke Zhuang of Qi committed adultery with her, frequently going to Cui Zhu’s house. When the duke went there, Cui Zhu’s follower Jia Ju led Cui Zhu’s followers to attack the duke. The duke entered the inner chamber and requested to divide the state with them; Cui Zhu would not agree. The duke requested to commit suicide in the ancestral temple; Cui Zhu again would not listen. The duke then fled and climbed over the northern wall. Jia Ju shot the duke, hitting him in the thigh; the duke fell, and Cui Zhu’s followers killed him with halberds. They then established his younger brother, Duke Jing.” In recent times, we see: Li Dui, when he held power in Zhao, starved the Lord Father (King Wuling of Zhao) for a hundred days until he died; Zhuo Chi, when he held power in Qi, pulled out the sinews of King Min of Qi, hung him on the beam of the ancestral hall, and he died after one night. Therefore, although a man with leprosy has abscesses, swellings, and sores, when compared upward to the events in the Spring and Autumn Annals, it does not reach the point of strangulation or being shot in the thigh; when compared downward to recent events, it does not reach the point of starvation or having sinews pulled out. Therefore, for rulers who are seized, assassinated, or die, the anxiety and fear in their hearts and the pain and suffering of their bodies must be more severe than that of a man with leprosy. From this perspective, even “a man with leprosy pitying the ruler” is permissible.