The Meaning of Sacrifices
Sacrificial rites should not be performed too frequently; if too frequent, they cause weariness, and weariness leads to a loss of reverence. Nor should they be performed too rarely; if too rare, they lead to negligence, and negligence causes one to forget the ancestors. Therefore, the noble person conducts sacrifices in accordance with the natural order: in spring, the Di sacrifice, and in autumn, the Chang sacrifice. When frost and dew descend, the noble person, treading on them, inevitably feels a sense of sorrow, but this is not because of the cold. In spring, when rain and dew moisten the earth, the noble person, treading on them, inevitably feels a sense of awe, as if about to see the ancestors. Music is used to welcome the arrival of the ancestors, and grief is used to see off their departure; thus the Di sacrifice has music, while the Chang sacrifice does not.
The preparatory fasting (Zhi Zhai) is conducted indoors, while the general fasting (San Zhai) is conducted outdoors. During the days of fasting, one should think of the departed’s dwelling place in life, think of the departed’s laughter and speech in life, think of the departed’s aspirations and interests in life, think of the things the departed loved in life, and think of the things the departed delighted in. After three days of fasting, one can see the deceased relative being sacrificed to. On the day of the sacrifice, when entering the temple chamber, it is as if one faintly sees the relative at the spirit seat; when turning and leaving the door, one stands in awe, as if hearing the relative’s voice; after going out and listening intently, one sighs with emotion, as if hearing the relative’s sigh. Therefore, when the former kings fulfilled filial piety, the relative’s countenance never disappeared from before their eyes, the relative’s voice never ceased from their ears, and the relative’s aspirations and delights never faded from their hearts. When love is utterly exhausted, the relative abides in the heart; when sincerity is utterly exhausted, the relative appears before the eyes. When the relative thus appears and abides in the heart without forgetting, how could one fail to be reverent?
The noble person, while parents are alive, serves them with reverence, and after their death, sacrifices to them with reverence, thinking all his life never to bring disgrace upon his parents. The noble person has a lifelong mourning, which refers to the death-day anniversary. On the anniversary, he does no work—not because it is unlucky, but because on this day, his mind is wholly focused on remembrance, and he dares not attend to his own private affairs.
Only the sage can sacrifice to the Supreme God (Shangdi); only the filial son can sacrifice to his parents. The term “xiang” (to enjoy sacrifice) means “xiang” (to face toward). When the mind faces the spirit, only then can one sacrifice. Therefore, the filial son, when facing the impersonator of the deceased (shi), feels no shame. The ruler leads the sacrificial ox, and the ruler’s wife presents the Ang Qi wine. The ruler offers wine to the impersonator, and the ruler’s wife presents the offerings in the vessels. The high ministers and great officers assist the ruler, and the titled women assist the ruler’s wife. How reverent and orderly they are! How loyal and harmonious they are! How diligent they are, hoping that the impersonator will enjoy the offerings!
When King Wen sacrificed, he served the dead as he served the living; when thinking of the deceased, his grief was such that he wished not to live; on the anniversary he was surely sorrowful; when speaking the taboo name, it was as if he saw the relative—this is the utmost sincerity in sacrifice. As if seeing what the relative loved, as if perceiving the relative’s desired expression—this, perhaps, describes King Wen! The Book of Odes says: “Until dawn he could not sleep, because he was thinking of those two people.” This is a eulogy for King Wen. On the day after the sacrifice, he could not sleep until dawn, because during the sacrifice he had invited the relatives, and then continued to think of them. On the day of the sacrifice, joy and sorrow were equally mixed: when the relative enjoyed the offerings, there was surely joy; after the relative had arrived, there was surely sorrow.
When Confucius performed the Chang sacrifice, as he held the offerings to present them, his expression was earnest, his steps were hurried and frequent. After the sacrifice, Zigong asked, saying, “You once said that in sacrifice one should be grave and reverent, yet now in your sacrifice you did not appear grave and reverent—why is that?” Confucius said, “Grave and reverent—that is a distant countenance; respectful and cautious—that is a self-reflective countenance. With a distant countenance, and also a self-reflective one, how can one commune with the spirits? Where is the grave and reverent appearance? Later, when the cooked food is presented, the music begins, the meat stands are arranged, the rituals and music are set in order, and the hundred officials are all in place, then the noble person shows a grave and reverent appearance—but at that time, where is the trance-like absorption? What I said—does it refer to only one aspect? Each has its proper occasion.”
When the filial son is about to sacrifice, he cannot but prepare his plans beforehand; when the time comes to prepare the items for the sacrifice, they cannot but be complete; he must handle these matters with a mind free from distractions. The chambers have been repaired, the walls and roofs have been set in order, and the hundred officials are all prepared. The husband and wife fast and bathe, put on splendid garments, and hold the offerings to present them. Their reverent caution is as if they cannot bear the weight, as if they are about to drop it—this is the utmost point of filial devotion and reverence! The meat stands are arranged, the rituals and music are set in order, and the hundred officials are all in place. They hold the offerings and present them. At this time, they express their intentions, and in a trance-like state commune with the spirits, hoping perhaps that the spirits will enjoy the offerings. Perhaps the spirits will enjoy the offerings—this is the filial son’s heartfelt wish.
The filial son’s sacrifice: he exhausts his sincerity and manifests sincerity; he exhausts his trustworthiness and manifests trustworthiness; he exhausts his reverence and manifests reverence; he exhausts ritual propriety and has no fault. In advancing and retreating, he must be reverent, as if personally hearing the relative’s command, as if the relative is directing him. In the filial son’s sacrifice, his intentions can be seen. When he stands, he is reverent and slightly bent; when he advances, he is reverent and harmonious; when he presents the offerings, he is reverent and shows the desire that the relative enjoy them; when he retreats and stands, it is as if he is about to receive a command; when he withdraws after removing the offerings, a reverent and solemn expression never leaves his face. In the filial son’s sacrifice, if he stands but does not bend, that is stubbornness; if he advances but is not harmonious, that is distance; if he presents the offerings but does not show the desire that the relative enjoy them, that is lack of love for the relative; if he retreats and stands but does not appear as if about to receive a command, that is arrogance; if when he withdraws after removing the offerings he has no reverent and solemn expression, that is forgetting his roots. To sacrifice in such a way is to lose the meaning of sacrifice. If the filial son has deep love for his parents, he will surely have a gentle countenance; if he has a gentle countenance, he will surely have a joyful expression; if he has a joyful expression, he will surely have a compliant demeanor. The filial son holds the offerings as if holding a precious jade, as if holding a brim-full cup; reverent and cautious, as if he cannot bear the weight, as if he is about to drop it. Sternness, majesty, gravity, and reverence—these are not the attitudes for serving one’s parents; they are the behaviors of an adult.
The former kings had five methods for governing the world: honoring the virtuous, respecting the noble, revering the aged, respecting the elder, and loving the young. These five are how the former kings brought peace to the world. Why honor the virtuous? Because they are close to the Way of Heaven. Why respect the noble? Because they are close to the ruler. Why revere the aged? Because they are close to one’s parents. Why respect the elder? Because they are close to one’s elder brothers. Why love the young? Because they are close to one’s children. Therefore, to exhaust filial piety is close to the kingly Way; to exhaust fraternal duty (Ti) is close to the hegemonic Way. To exhaust filial piety is close to the kingly Way—even the Son of Heaven certainly has a father; to exhaust fraternal duty is close to the hegemonic Way—even the feudal lords certainly have elder brothers. The former kings’ instruction followed these without change, and thus they were able to lead the world and the states.
Confucius said: “To establish love, begin with serving one’s parents—this teaches the people harmony; to establish moral instruction, begin with respecting one’s elder brothers—this teaches the people obedience. By teaching with kindness and harmony, the people will value their relatives; by teaching respect for elders, the people will value obeying commands. To serve one’s parents with filial piety, and to obey commands with compliance; to practice these throughout the world—there is nowhere they cannot be applied.”
When the suburban sacrifice (Jiao) is performed, those in mourning dare not weep, and those wearing mourning garments dare not enter the state gate—this is the utmost reverence. On the day of the sacrifice, the ruler leads the sacrificial ox, the heir follows behind the ruler, and the high ministers and great officers follow in order. After entering the temple gate, the ox is tied to a stone pillar; the high ministers and great officers bare their left arms, take the ox’s hair—valuing the ears—and use the Luan knife to cut the ox, removing its internal organs and fat, and then withdraw. They sacrifice with half-raw meat and raw meat, and then withdraw—this is the utmost reverence.
The suburban sacrifice is a solemn act of repaying Heaven, with the sun as the principal object and the moon as its associate. The Xia clan sacrificed in darkness, the Yin people sacrificed during the day, and the Zhou people sacrificed from morning until night in honor of the sun. They sacrificed to the sun on an altar and to the moon in a pit, thereby distinguishing light from darkness and establishing the order of high and low. They sacrificed to the sun in the east and to the moon in the west, thereby distinguishing inner from outer and rectifying their positions. The sun rises from the east, and the moon appears from the west. The alternation of yin and yang, the cycles of beginning and end, thereby bring harmony to all under Heaven.
The rites of all under Heaven are used to commemorate origins, to serve ghosts and spirits, to harmonize the use of the myriad things, to promote righteous conduct, and to encourage yielding and deference. Commemorating origins is to strengthen the root; serving ghosts and spirits is to honor the ancestors; harmonizing the use of the myriad things is to establish the people’s standards of living; promoting righteous conduct ensures that superiors and inferiors do not transgress against each other; encouraging yielding and deference is to eliminate conflict. These five together constitute the rites by which all under Heaven are governed. Even if there are strange and perverse people, if these rites cannot be properly enacted, it is rare indeed.
Zai Wo said, “I have heard the names ‘ghost’ and ‘spirit,’ but I do not know what they refer to.” Confucius said, “The vital breath is the flourishing manifestation of spirit; the soul is the flourishing manifestation of ghost. To combine ghost and spirit in sacrifice is the most essential aspect of teaching. All living beings must die, and after death they must return to the earth; this is called ghost. The bones and flesh decay underground, turning into the soil of the fields; their vital breath rises upward, becoming radiance, fragrance, and a sense of desolation—this is the essence of all living things and the manifestation of spirit. Based on the essence of living things, the highest standard was established, clearly naming them ghost and spirit, thereby teaching the people; thus the people all revere them, and the myriad people all submit.
“The sage considered this insufficient, so he built palaces and established ancestral temples to distinguish closeness and distance, nearness and remoteness, teaching the people to commemorate the distant past and return to their origins, never forgetting from where they were born. The people’s submission arose from this, so they obeyed commands quickly. Once the concepts of ghost and spirit were established, two kinds of rituals were used to repay them. They established the ritual of the morning audience, burning offerings so that the fragrance ascended, adding the smoke of mugwort, thereby repaying the spirit. This teaches the people to return to their origins. They presented millet and glutinous rice, presented liver, lungs, head, and heart, added two vessels of wine, and then added aromatic wine, thereby repaying the soul. This teaches the people to love one another, so that superiors and inferiors both express their feelings—this is the highest point of ritual.
“The gentleman commemorates the distant past and returns to his origins, never forgetting from where he was born. Therefore, he expresses reverence, gives vent to his feelings, and exhausts his strength in doing things, thereby repaying his parents, not daring to be anything less than fully devoted. Therefore, in ancient times, the Son of Heaven established a thousand mu of public fields, put on a cap with a red band, and personally took up the plow and tilled; the feudal lords established a hundred mu of public fields, put on a cap with a blue band, and personally took up the plow and tilled. With these they served Heaven, Earth, mountains, rivers, the altars of soil and grain, and the ancestors, using them to make sweet wine, sour wine, and sacrificial offerings, all obtained from these—this is the utmost of reverence.
“In ancient times, the Son of Heaven and the feudal lords invariably appointed officials to tend the sacrificial animals, and at the time of the annual sacrifice, after fasting and bathing, they personally went to see these officials. The pure-colored and complete sacrificial oxen were invariably selected from among them—this is the utmost of reverence. The lord summoned the ox, led it into the palace for inspection; he selected its coat color, then performed divination; if auspicious, he then had it tended. The lord put on a deerskin cap and plain white gathered robe, and on the first and fifteenth of each month, he inspected the sacrificial animal—this is exhausting his strength, the utmost of filial piety.
“In ancient times, the Son of Heaven and the feudal lords invariably established public mulberry groves and silkworm-raising chambers, built near rivers. They constructed walls one zhang and three chi high, woven with thorny brambles, and locked from the outside. At the dawn of the spring equinox, the lord put on a deerskin cap and plain white gathered robe, and divined among the ladies of the three palaces and the honored women for those who were auspicious, then had them enter the silkworm chambers to raise silkworms, holding the silkworm eggs to soak them in the river water; they picked mulberry leaves from the public grove, dried them in the wind, and fed them to the silkworms. At the end of the year, the honored women completed the silkworm work, presented the cocoons to the lord, who then presented the cocoons to the lady. The lady said, ‘Are these to be used for the lord’s robes?’ She then put on her headdress and ceremonial robe, received the cocoons, and entertained those who presented the cocoons with a lesser sacrificial feast. In ancient times, the presentation of cocoons probably all followed this ritual, did it not? On an auspicious day, the lady reeled silk, dipping her hands into water three times, then distributed it to the auspicious among the ladies of the three palaces and the honored women, letting them reel the silk. Then they dyed the silk with vermilion, green, black, and yellow, making various patterned designs. After the robes were completed, the lord wore them to sacrifice to the former kings and former dukes—this is the utmost of reverence.”
The gentleman said, “Ritual and music cannot be separated from the body and mind for even a moment. Using music to regulate the mind, then a calm, upright, loving, and trustworthy heart naturally arises. When a calm, upright, loving, and trustworthy heart arises, there is joy; with joy there is stability; with stability there is endurance; with endurance one becomes like Heaven; being like Heaven, one reaches the state of the numinous. Heaven does not speak yet is trustworthy; the numinous does not rage yet has authority. This is the principle of using music to regulate the mind. Using ritual to regulate the body results in solemnity and reverence; solemnity and reverence produce authority. If the mind is for a moment without harmony and joy, then base and deceitful thoughts will enter; if the outward appearance is for a moment without solemnity and reverence, then frivolous and careless thoughts will enter. Therefore, music is what moves the inner mind; ritual is what manifests in outward demeanor. Music reaches the utmost harmony; ritual reaches the utmost compliance. When the inner mind is harmonious and the outward demeanor is compliant, then the people, seeing his countenance, will not contend with him; seeing his appearance, the multitude will not harbor contempt. Therefore, the radiance of virtue arises from within, and the people all obey; the principle is manifested in outward demeanor, and the multitude all comply. Thus it is said: ‘The principles of ritual and music fill all under Heaven; when they are put into practice, there is no difficulty.’ Music is what moves the inner mind; ritual is what manifests in outward demeanor. Therefore, ritual is primarily about reduction, and music is primarily about fullness. Ritual, though reduced, must advance, using advance as its ornament; music, though full, must return, using return as its ornament. If ritual is reduced but does not advance, it will perish; if music is full but does not return, it will become licentious. Therefore, ritual has requital and music has return. When ritual receives requital, there is joy; when music receives return, there is stability. The requital of ritual and the return of music share the same principle.”
Zengzi said, “Filial piety has three degrees: the greatest filial piety is to revere one’s parents; the next is not to bring disgrace upon them; the lowest is to be able to support them.”
Gongming Yi asked Zengzi, saying, “Can you, Master, be called filial?” Zengzi said, “What words are these? What words are these? What the gentleman calls filial piety is to anticipate the parents’ intentions beforehand, to comply with their aspirations, and to admonish them with righteousness. I, Shen, am merely able to support them—how can that be considered filial piety?”
Zengzi said, “The body is the physical legacy left by one’s parents. Using the physical legacy left by one’s parents, dare one not be reverent? If one’s dwelling is not solemn, that is not filial; if serving the lord is not loyal, that is not filial; if holding office is not respectful, that is not filial; if toward friends one is not trustworthy, that is not filial; if in battle one is not brave, that is not filial. If these five things cannot be fulfilled, disaster will implicate one’s parents—dare one not be reverent? Cooking food until it is done, smelling its fragrance, tasting it, and then presenting it to one’s parents—this is not filial piety; it is support. What the gentleman calls filial piety is when the whole state praises and admires, saying, ‘How fortunate to have such a son!’ Only then is it filial piety. The fundamental teaching for all people is called filial piety; its practice is called support. Support can be achieved, but reverence is difficult; reverence can be achieved, but giving parents peace of mind is difficult; giving parents peace of mind can be achieved, but maintaining it from beginning to end is difficult. After one’s parents have passed away, to carefully cultivate oneself and not leave a bad name for one’s parents—this can be called maintaining it from beginning to end. Ren is to be benevolent in this; Li is to practice this; Yi is to be righteous in this; Xin is to be trustworthy in this; Qiang is to be strong in this. Joy arises from compliance with this; punishment arises from transgression against this.”
Zengzi said, “Filial piety—when established, it fills Heaven and Earth; when spread out, it overflows the four seas; when extended to later generations, morning and evening there is no end; when applied to the eastern sea, it meets the standard; when applied to the western sea, it meets the standard; when applied to the southern sea, it meets the standard; when applied to the northern sea, it meets the standard. The Book of Odes says: ‘From west to east, from south to north, there is none who is not submissive.’ This is what is meant.”
Zengzi said, “Trees are to be felled in their proper season; birds and beasts are to be killed in their proper season. The Master said: ‘To cut down one tree or kill one beast, if not at the proper season, is unfilial.’ Filial piety has three degrees: the lesser degree uses physical strength; the middle degree uses mental effort; the greater degree is never deficient. To think of one’s parents’ loving-kindness and forget one’s own toil—this can be called using physical strength. To honor Ren (benevolence) and abide by Yi (righteousness)—this can be called using mental effort. To broadly bestow benefits and prepare all things—this can be called never deficient. When parents love him, he is joyful and does not forget; when parents dislike him, he is cautious and without resentment. When parents have faults, he remonstrates without being disobedient. After parents have passed away, he must seek the grain of Ren (benevolent) people to offer sacrifices to them. This is called the completion of ritual propriety.”
Yuezheng Zichun injured his foot when descending the hall, and did not go out for several months, his face still showing signs of worry.
His disciples asked, “Master’s foot has already healed. For several months you have not gone out, and your face still shows worry. Why is this?”
Yuezheng Zichun said, “Well asked! Well asked! I heard from Zengzi, and Zengzi heard from the Master: ‘What Heaven gives birth to and Earth nourishes, none is more honorable than the human being.’ The parents give birth to him whole, and the son returns whole to his parents—this can be called filial piety. Not to harm his own body, not to disgrace his own reputation—this can be called wholeness. Therefore, the noble person does not forget filial piety even for half a step. Now I have forgotten the way of filial piety, and therefore my face shows worry. Every time he lifts his foot, he does not dare to forget his parents; every time he speaks a word, he does not dare to forget his parents. Every time he lifts his foot and does not dare to forget his parents, therefore he walks on the great road and not on small paths; when crossing water, he takes a boat and does not swim, not daring to risk the body left by his parents. Every time he speaks a word and does not dare to forget his parents, therefore bad words do not come from his mouth, and angry words do not return to himself. Not to disgrace himself, not to bring shame to his parents—this can be called filial piety.”
In ancient times, the clan of Youyu esteemed virtue and honored the elderly; the Xia dynasty esteemed rank and honored the elderly; the Yin people esteemed wealth and honored the elderly; the Zhou people esteemed kinship and honored the elderly. Yu, Xia, Yin, and Zhou were the great kings under Heaven, and none neglected the elderly. That the elderly are honored by all under Heaven has been the case for a long time, second only to serving one’s parents.
Therefore, in the court, when ranks are equal, the elderly are honored. At seventy, one may use a staff in court; if the ruler has a question, he provides a seat. At eighty, one need not wait for the court to adjourn; if the ruler has a question, he goes to the person’s home. In this way, the way of brotherly respect (ti) extends to the court.
When walking on the road, people may not walk shoulder to shoulder; they either step aside or follow. When seeing an elderly person, whether riding or walking, they yield the way. Those with gray hair are not made to carry loads on the road. In this way, the way of brotherly respect extends to the road.
In the villages, people are ranked by age when living together; the elderly poor are not abandoned; the strong do not oppress the weak; the many do not bully the few. In this way, the way of brotherly respect extends to the villages and lanes.
According to the rules from ancient times, at fifty, one does not serve in hunting duties, and when distributing game, priority is given to the elderly. In this way, the way of brotherly respect extends to hunting.
In the army, when in groups of ten or five, if ranks are equal, the elderly are honored. In this way, the way of brotherly respect extends to the army.
The way of filial piety and brotherly respect begins in the court, passes through the roads, reaches the villages and lanes, extends to the hunt, and is cultivated in the army. The multitude would rather die for righteousness than violate it.
Performing sacrifices in the Bright Hall (Mingtang) is to teach the feudal lords filial piety. Feasting the Three Elders and the Five Agents in the Great Academy is to teach the feudal lords brotherly respect. Sacrificing to the former worthies in the Western School is to teach the feudal lords cultivation of virtue. Plowing the sacred field is to teach the feudal lords provision for their parents. Performing the audience rites is to teach the feudal lords to be ministers. These five matters are the most important teachings under Heaven.
The Son of Heaven established four schools. When entering school, the heir apparent also ranks by age with his peers. When the Son of Heaven goes on a tour of inspection, the feudal lords wait at the borders. The Son of Heaven first receives the hundred-year-olds. Those eighty and ninety years old—if they go east, those going west dare not pass them; if they go west, those going east dare not pass them. If they wish to discuss government affairs, the ruler may go to them.
Those of the first rank of appointment rank by age in the village. Those of the second rank of appointment rank by age in the clan. Those of the third rank of appointment do not rank by age. In the clan, if there are those aged seventy, others dare not walk ahead of them. Those aged seventy do not enter court unless there is a major affair. If there is a major affair and they enter court, the ruler must first bow to them, and only then attend to those with ranks.
When the Son of Heaven has good deeds, he attributes the merit to Heaven. When the feudal lords have good deeds, they attribute it to the Son of Heaven. When the high officials and great officers have good deeds, they present it to the feudal lords. When the officers and common people have good deeds, they trace it back to their parents and attribute it to their elders. Salaries, ranks, and rewards are completed in the ancestral temple. This is to show compliance. In ancient times, the sages, based on the conditions of yin and yang and Heaven and Earth, created the Changes (Yi). The Grand Diviner holds the tortoise shell facing south, while the Son of Heaven, in his robe and cap, faces north. Even if he has wise intentions, he must step forward and ask the Grand Diviner to decide his intention. This shows that he dares not be arbitrary, so as to honor Heaven. When there is good, he praises others; when there is fault, he attributes it to himself. This teaches people not to boast, so as to honor the worthy.
When a filial son is about to perform a sacrifice, he must have a mind of fasting and reverence to consider the matters, prepare the robes and offerings, repair the chambers, and manage all affairs. On the day of the sacrifice, his countenance must be gentle, his movements must be careful, as if he fears he cannot express his love and respect. When arranging the offerings, his appearance must be mild, his body must be bent, as if he has something to say but cannot speak. After the assistants have withdrawn, he stands humble, quiet, and upright, as if he is about to see his parents again but cannot. After the sacrifice, his heart is joyful and longing, as if his parents are about to enter again. Therefore, sincerity and goodness do not leave his person; his ears and eyes do not go against his heart; his thoughts do not leave his parents. They are congealed in his heart, manifested in his countenance, and reflected upon again and again. This is the will of the filial son.
When establishing the state’s altars, on the right is the Altar of Soil and Grain (Sheji), on the left is the Ancestral Temple.