Questions of Duke Ai

Duke Ai asked Confucius, "What are the grand rites like? Why do gentlemen, when discussing rites, honor them so greatly?"

Confucius replied, "I, Qiu, am a vulgar man, unworthy to understand rites."

Duke Ai said, "No! Please do speak."

Confucius said, "I have heard that among the principles by which the people live, rites are the most important. Without rites, one cannot properly serve the spirits of heaven and earth with due measure; without rites, one cannot distinguish the positions of ruler and minister, superior and inferior, elder and younger; without rites, one cannot differentiate the affections between male and female, father and son, elder and younger brother, nor the closeness or distance in marriage and social intercourse. Therefore, the gentleman respects and honors rites. Then, using what he himself can achieve, he teaches the people, not abandoning the regulations and standards of rites. After achieving results, he then arranges the carvings and patterns on vessels and the embroidered designs on ceremonial robes, to carry on tradition. Following these rites, he then sets the specifications for mourning, prepares vessels like tripods and stands, displays dried meats and preserved foods, builds ancestral temples, offers sacrifices reverently according to the seasons, and thereby orders the ranks of the clan. At the same time, he settles his dwelling, moderates the splendor of clothing, reduces the scale of palaces and chambers, adds no ornamentation to carriages, does not carve vessels, and does not seek variety in food and drink, to share benefits with the people. This is how the gentlemen of antiquity practiced rites."

Duke Ai asked, "Why do none of today's gentlemen do so?"

Confucius replied, "Today's gentlemen are insatiable in their greed for wealth and goods, and unrestrained in their indulgence of virtue. They are idle and neglectful, arrogant and lacking in propriety, solely focused on extorting the people's resources and exhausting their strength, going against the multitude to attack those who follow the Way; they pursue what they desire to satisfy their selfish wants, not following the correct path. Those who governed the people in antiquity followed the former way; those who govern the people today adopt the latter way. Today's gentlemen, none practice the rites."

Confucius was seated beside Duke Ai, and Duke Ai asked, "May I ask what is most important in the Way of humanity?"

Confucius's expression became solemn, and he replied, "That you, my lord, speak these words is truly the people's blessing! How dare I not answer? In the Way of humanity, governance is most important."

Duke Ai asked, "May I ask what it means to govern?"

Confucius replied, "Governance means rectitude. If the ruler is upright, then the people will follow his commands. What the ruler does is what the people emulate. If the ruler is unwilling to do something, what would the people follow?"

Duke Ai asked, "May I ask how governance should be carried out?"

Confucius replied, "Distinction between husband and wife, affection between father and son, respect between ruler and minister. When these three are correct, then all matters will accordingly be correct."

Duke Ai said, "Though I am without ability, I wish to hear the method for putting these three statements into practice. Could you explain it to me?"

Confucius replied, "In governing in antiquity, loving others was most important. What accomplishes loving others, rites are most important. What accomplishes rites, reverence is most important. When reverence reaches its utmost, the marriage rite is most important. The marriage rite is indeed the ultimate! When the marriage rite arrives, the ruler dons his ceremonial cap and personally goes to welcome the bride—this is to draw close to the other. Drawing close to the other means making the other draw close to oneself. Therefore, the gentleman fosters reverence to promote closeness; if reverence is abandoned, then closeness is discarded. Without love, there is no closeness; without reverence, there is no rectitude. Love and reverence—are these not the foundation of governance?"

Duke Ai said, "I wish to say something. Donning the ceremonial cap and personally welcoming the bride—is this not too much?"

Confucius's expression became solemn, and he replied, "This is to unite the good relations of two families, to continue the posterity of the ancestors, and to become the master of heaven and earth, the ancestral temple, and the altars of soil and grain. Why does you, my lord, say it is too much?"

Duke Ai said, "I am truly ignorant! Were I not ignorant, how could I have heard these words? I wish to ask, but cannot find the right words. Please go on a little further!"

Confucius said, "If heaven and earth do not unite, the myriad things do not grow. The marriage rite is for continuing the posterity of ten thousand generations. Why does you, my lord, say it is too much?"

Confucius continued, "The rites used within to govern the ancestral temple are sufficient to match the spirits of heaven and earth; the rites used without to govern the court are sufficient to establish reverence between ruler and minister and superior and inferior. When encountering affairs that bring shame, one can use them to stir oneself; when the state has shame, one can use them to revive it. Governance takes rites as its foundation—rites, are they not the root of governance?"

Confucius further said, "In the past, the governance of the sage kings of the Three Dynasties—Xia, Shang, and Zhou—always reverenced their wives, and this was reasonable. The wife is the primary caretaker of the parents; dare one not reverence her? The son is the descendant of the parents; dare one not reverence him? The gentleman reverences nothing without cause, and reverence for oneself is most important. The self is the branch and leaf of the parents; dare one not reverence it? If one cannot reverence oneself, that is to harm the parents; harming the parents is harming the root; harming the root, the branches and leaves then perish. These three aspects are the model for the people. Extending from oneself to others' selves, from one's son to others' sons, from one's wife to others' wives—if the ruler can practice these three, then all under heaven will be filled with harmony. This is the Way of the ancient Duke Danfu. Acting thus, the state will be ordered."

Duke Ai asked, "May I ask what it means to reverence oneself?"

Confucius replied, "If the gentleman speaks wrongly, the people will take his words as their speech; if he acts wrongly, the people will take his actions as their standard. If the gentleman's words do not exceed the limits of speech, and his actions do not overstep the boundaries of standards, then the people will be reverent without command. Thus, he can reverence himself; being able to reverence himself, he can then fulfill his parents."

Duke Ai asked, "May I ask what it means to fulfill one's parents?"

Confucius replied, "The name 'gentleman' is the title by which a person achieves a good reputation. The people attribute this good name to him, calling him the son of a gentleman. This is to make his parents into gentlemen—this is to fulfill the reputation of his parents."

Confucius continued, "In governing in antiquity, loving others was most important. If one cannot love others, one cannot preserve oneself; if one cannot preserve oneself, one cannot settle in one's native land; if one cannot settle in one's native land, one cannot delight in the Way of Heaven; if one cannot delight in the Way of Heaven, one cannot fulfill oneself."

Duke Ai asked, "May I ask what it means to fulfill oneself?"

Confucius replied, "Not transgressing the boundaries of things."

Duke Ai asked, "May I ask why the gentleman honors the Way of Heaven?"

Confucius replied, "He honors its ceaseless motion. For example, the sun and moon follow each other from east to west without stopping—this is the Way of Heaven; moving long without obstruction—this is the Way of Heaven; doing nothing yet the myriad things are accomplished—this is the Way of Heaven; after accomplishment, it becomes manifest and clear—this is the Way of Heaven."

Duke Ai said, "My mind is dull and obscured; I trouble you to open my understanding."

Confucius respectfully left his mat and replied, "The benevolent person does not transgress the boundaries of things; the filial son does not transgress the boundaries of things. Therefore, the benevolent person serves his parents as he serves Heaven, and serves Heaven as he serves his parents; thus, the filial son can fulfill himself."

Duke Ai said, "I have already heard these words, but I fear that in the future I may have faults. What should I do?"

Confucius replied, "That you, my lord, speak these words—this is the blessing of your subjects."