The Doctrine of the Mean
What Heaven confers on man is called "nature." To act in accordance with nature is called "the Way." To cultivate the Way and extend it to all people is called "instruction." This Way cannot be separated from us for a moment; if it could be separated, it would not be the Way. Therefore, the noble person is watchful and cautious over what is not seen, and is fearful and apprehensive over what is not heard. There is nothing more visible than what is hidden, and nothing more manifest than what is subtle. Hence, the noble person is especially careful when alone.
Before the feelings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, and joy are aroused, it is called "Equilibrium." When they are aroused and all attain due measure and degree, it is called "Harmony." Equilibrium is the great foundation of all under heaven; Harmony is the universal path under heaven. When Equilibrium and Harmony are realized to the highest degree, heaven and earth will be in their proper positions, and all things will flourish and grow.
Zhongni said, "The noble person follows the Mean, while the petty person violates it. The noble person is able to practice the Mean because he is always in the proper measure. The petty person violates the Mean because he has no scruples."
Confucius said, "How sublime is the virtue of the Mean! It has long been rare among the common people."
Confucius said, "I know why the Way is not practiced: the wise go beyond it, and the foolish fall short of it. I know why the Way is not understood: the worthy go beyond it, and the unworthy fall short of it. There is no one who does not eat and drink, but few can truly appreciate the taste."
Confucius said, "The Way is probably not being practiced!"
Confucius said, "Shun was indeed a man of great wisdom! He liked to ask questions and was skilled in examining ordinary speech. He concealed the faults of others and praised their good points. He grasped the two extremes of excess and deficiency and employed the Mean in governing the people. This is how Shun became Shun!"
Confucius said, "Everyone says, 'I know,' but when driven into nets, traps, and pits, they do not know how to avoid them. Everyone says, 'I know,' yet having chosen the Mean, they cannot persist in it for even a month."
Confucius said, "This is how Hui conducted himself: having chosen the Mean, he grasped one good principle and held it firmly in his heart, never losing it."
Confucius said, "One may bring the states and clans into order, one may decline rank and emolument, one may tread upon naked blades, but it is not easy to practice the Mean."
Zilu asked about strength. Confucius said, "Do you mean the strength of the South, the strength of the North, or your own idea of strength? To teach with tolerance and gentleness, and not retaliate against unreasonable treatment—this is the strength of the South, and the noble person abides in it. To sleep on armor and weapons, and die without regret—this is the strength of the North, and the forceful abide in it. Therefore, the noble person is harmonious but not conforming—how strong he is! He holds the center without leaning—how strong he is! When the state is well governed, he does not change his integrity from times of poverty—how strong he is! When the state is ill governed, he does not change his resolve even unto death—how strong he is!"
Confucius said, "To pursue recondite doctrines and practice strange deeds, posterity may perhaps recount them, but I will not do so. The noble person follows the proper path; some give up halfway, but I cannot stop. The noble person abides by the Mean, and even if he withdraws from the world and is unknown to men, he does not regret it—only the sage can do this."
The Way of the noble person is both vast and subtle. Even stupid men and women can know something of it, but at its utmost, even the sage does not know everything. Even the unworthy can practice something of it, but at its utmost, even the sage cannot practice everything. Great as heaven and earth are, man still has regrets. Therefore, when the noble person speaks of the great aspects of the Way, nothing under heaven can contain it; when he speaks of its small aspects, nothing under heaven can dissect it. The Book of Odes says, "The hawk flies up to heaven, the fish leaps into the deep." This means that both above and below are clearly perceived. The Way of the noble person begins in the ordinary affairs of husband and wife; at its utmost, it illuminates heaven and earth and all things.
Confucius said, "The Way is not far from man. If a man practices the Way and it is far from man, it cannot be called the Way. The Book of Odes says, 'In hewing an axe handle, in hewing an axe handle, the pattern is not far off.' If you take an old axe handle to hew a new one, and look askance, you still think it far off. Therefore, the noble person uses the Way of man to govern men, until they correct themselves. The Way of loyalty and reciprocity is not far from the Way. Do not impose on others what you yourself do not desire. The Way of the noble person has four aspects, and I, Qiu, have not attained even one: to serve my father as I would require my son to serve me—I have not done it; to serve my ruler as I would require my minister to serve me—I have not done it; to serve my elder brother as I would require my younger brother to serve me—I have not done it; to be the first to treat a friend as I would require him to treat me—I have not done it. In practicing ordinary virtue, I strive earnestly; in speaking ordinary words, I am cautious; where I fall short, I dare not fail to make up; where I have surplus, I dare not speak it all out. Words must correspond to deeds, and deeds must correspond to words. How can the noble person not be loyal and sincere!"
The noble person is content with his current position and acts accordingly, not coveting anything beyond it. In a position of wealth and honor, he acts as befits wealth and honor; in a position of poverty and lowliness, he acts as befits poverty and lowliness; in a position among barbarian tribes, he acts as befits being among them; in a position of hardship and distress, he acts as befits hardship and distress. The noble person can find himself at ease in any situation. When in a superior position, he does not insult those below; when in an inferior position, he does not flatter those above. He rectifies himself and does not seek from others, thus he has no resentment. He does not complain against Heaven above, nor blame men below. Therefore, the noble person dwells in tranquility and ease to await his destiny, while the petty person takes risks to seek fortune by chance. Confucius said, "The archer's way is similar to the noble person's way. When he misses the target, he turns back and seeks the cause in himself."
The noble person's practice of the Way is like traveling a long road—he must begin from what is near; like climbing a high mountain—he must begin from what is low. The Book of Odes says, "Be in harmony with wife and children, like the harmony of lute and harp. Let brothers be united, harmonious and joyful. Make your family peaceful, and make your wife and children happy." Confucius said, "Then parents will be content indeed!"
Confucius said, "How abundant are the powers of the spirits and gods! Look for them and they cannot be seen; listen for them and they cannot be heard; yet they are embodied in all things, and nothing can be omitted. They cause all people under heaven to fast and purify themselves, put on splendid robes, and perform sacrifices. Vast and flowing, they seem to be above our heads and to our left and right. The Book of Odes says, 'The coming of the spirits cannot be fathomed—how can we be weary of them?' The subtle becomes manifest. Sincerity cannot be concealed—it is like this!"
Confucius said, "Shun was indeed a man of great filial piety! His virtue was that of a sage; his honor was that of a Son of Heaven; his wealth embraced all within the four seas. Sacrifices were offered to him in the ancestral temple, and his descendants preserved his heritage. Therefore, a person of great virtue will surely attain his proper position, surely attain his proper emolument, surely attain his proper fame, and surely attain his proper longevity. Hence, Heaven, in giving life to all things, bestows richly according to their substance. Therefore, what can be cultivated, it nourishes; what is about to fall, it overturns. The Book of Odes says, 'The happy and good noble person, manifestly possessing excellent virtue. He comforts the people, employs the worthy, and receives blessings from Heaven. Heaven protects and appoints him, and repeatedly bestows its mandate from on high.' Therefore, a person of great virtue will surely receive Heaven's mandate."
Confucius said: “The man who had no anxiety was perhaps King Wen. He had Wang Ji as his father and King Wu as his son. His father initiated the foundation, and his son carried on the enterprise. King Wu succeeded to the achievements of Grand King, Wang Ji, and King Wen. Once he donned his armor, he punished the tyrant Zhou and possessed the entire realm. He himself did not lose the illustrious fame of possessing the realm. Honored as the Son of Heaven, his wealth embraced all within the four seas. In the ancestral temple, sacrifices were offered to him, and his descendants preserved his foundation. King Wu received the mandate in his later years, and the Duke of Zhou completed the virtuous achievements of King Wen and King Wu. He posthumously honored Grand King and Wang Ji as kings, and performed the rites of the Son of Heaven in sacrificing to the ancestors. These rites extended to the feudal lords, the great officers, the scholars, and the common people. If the father was a great officer and the son a scholar, the father was buried with the rites of a great officer and sacrificed to with the rites of a scholar. If the father was a scholar and the son a great officer, the father was buried with the rites of a scholar and sacrificed to with the rites of a great officer. The mourning period of one year extended to the great officers; the mourning period of three years extended to the Son of Heaven; the mourning for one’s parents was the same for all, whether noble or base.”
Confucius said: “King Wu and the Duke of Zhou were perhaps those who understood filial piety! Filial piety means being skilled in continuing the intentions of one’s predecessors and being skilled in completing their undertakings. In spring and autumn, they repaired the ancestral temple, displayed the sacrificial vessels, set forth the garments of the predecessors, and presented the seasonal foods. The rites of the ancestral temple were used to arrange the order of the tablets according to generations. The arrangement of ranks was used to distinguish the noble from the base. The arrangement of duties was used to distinguish the worthy. The ritual of offering wine to the elders in the sequence of mutual toasts was to enable those of lower status to participate. At feasts, seating was arranged by hair color to order the young and old. Ascending to the positions of the predecessors, performing the rites of the predecessors, playing the music of the predecessors, revering what the predecessors revered, loving what the predecessors loved, serving the dead as if serving the living, serving the departed as if serving the present—this is the ultimate of filial piety. The rites of the suburban sacrifice and the altar sacrifice were used to serve the Supreme Lord. The rites of the ancestral temple were used to sacrifice to the ancestors. If one understands the rites of the suburban and altar sacrifices, as well as the meaning of the Di and Chang sacrifices, then governing the kingdom is as easy as looking at the palm of one’s hand.”
Duke Ai of Lu asked about governing. Confucius said: “The government of King Wen and King Wu is recorded in the documents. When such men exist, their government flourishes; when such men are gone, their government ceases. With the Way of humanity in governing, government is easily implemented; with the Way of the earth in planting trees, trees easily grow. Government, then, is like reeds. Therefore, governing lies in obtaining worthy men. Obtaining worthy men depends on cultivating oneself. Cultivating oneself depends on following the Way. Cultivating the Way depends on Ren (benevolence). Ren means to love others, and loving one’s relatives is most important. Yi (righteousness) means what is fitting, and honoring the worthy is most important. Loving relatives has degrees of closeness, and honoring the worthy has degrees of rank—this is the source from which Li (ritual/propriety) arises. Those in inferior positions, if they do not gain the trust of their superiors, cannot govern the people well. Therefore, the junzi (noble person) cannot fail to cultivate himself. To cultivate himself, he cannot fail to serve his parents. To serve his parents, he cannot fail to understand others. To understand others, he cannot fail to know Heaven. There are five universal paths in the world, and three virtues for practicing them: ruler and minister, father and son, husband and wife, elder and younger brother, and interaction between friends. These five are the universal paths in the world. Zhi (wisdom), Ren (benevolence), and yong (courage)—these three are the universal virtues in the world. The Way of practicing them is one. Some are born knowing them; some learn them; some know them after difficulty. Yet when they know them, it is the same. Some practice them naturally; some practice them for benefit; some practice them with effort. Yet when they succeed, it is the same.”
Confucius said: “Loving learning is close to Zhi (wisdom). Striving to do good is close to Ren (benevolence). Knowing shame is close to yong (courage). Knowing these three means knowing how to cultivate oneself; knowing how to cultivate oneself means knowing how to govern others; knowing how to govern others means knowing how to govern the kingdom and its states.”
“In governing the kingdom and its states, there are nine constant principles: cultivating oneself, honoring the worthy, being close to one’s kin, respecting the great ministers, showing consideration to the body of ministers, loving the people as children, attracting the various artisans, treating people from afar generously, and comforting the feudal lords of the four quarters. Cultivating oneself establishes the Way; honoring the worthy prevents confusion; being close to one’s kin prevents resentment from uncles and brothers; respecting the great ministers prevents disorder; showing consideration to the body of ministers causes scholars to repay with heavy ritual; loving the people as children causes the people to be diligent; attracting the various artisans ensures sufficiency of goods and resources; treating people from afar generously causes people from the four quarters to submit; comforting the feudal lords of the four quarters causes the world to stand in awe.”
“Purifying the heart and fasting, wearing proper attire, and not doing what is contrary to Li (ritual/propriety): this is the way to cultivate oneself. Rejecting slander, keeping away beauty, valuing virtue over wealth: this is the way to encourage the worthy. Raising their positions, increasing their emoluments, sharing their likes and dislikes: this is the way to encourage one’s kin. Having many officials and employing them with specific duties: this is the way to encourage the great ministers. Being loyal and trustworthy, granting generous stipends: this is the way to encourage scholars. Employing them at proper times and reducing taxes: this is the way to encourage the people. Inspecting daily, examining monthly, and rewarding their labor accordingly: this is the way to encourage the various artisans. Seeing off those who depart and welcoming those who come, commending the good and sympathizing with the incapable: this is the way to treat people from afar generously. Continuing broken lineages, reviving extinguished states, bringing order to chaos, supporting the weak, fixing times for court visits, giving generously and receiving sparingly: this is the way to comfort the feudal lords. In governing the kingdom and its states, there are nine constant principles, and the way of practicing them is one.”
“In all matters, preparation leads to success; lack of preparation leads to failure. If speech is prepared beforehand, there will be no stumbling; if affairs are prepared beforehand, there will be no distress; if actions are prepared beforehand, there will be no faults; if the path is prepared beforehand, there will be no dead ends. Those in inferior positions, if they do not gain the trust of their superiors, cannot govern the people well. There is a way to gain the trust of superiors: if one is not trusted by friends, one cannot gain the trust of superiors. There is a way to be trusted by friends: if one does not comply with one’s parents, one cannot be trusted by friends. There is a way to comply with parents: if one does not reflect on oneself with sincerity, one cannot comply with parents. There is a way to make oneself sincere: if one does not understand what is good, one cannot make oneself sincere.”
“Sincerity is the Way of Heaven. Achieving sincerity is the Way of human beings. Those who are sincere achieve without effort, attain without thought, and naturally and effortlessly hit the middle way—these are sages. Those who achieve sincerity choose what is good and hold fast to it. Study extensively, inquire carefully, think prudently, discern clearly, and practice earnestly. Unless they study, if they study and do not master it, they do not stop. Unless they inquire, if they inquire and do not understand, they do not stop. Unless they think, if they think and do not attain it, they do not stop. Unless they discern, if they discern and it is not clear, they do not stop. Unless they practice, if they practice and it is not earnest, they do not stop. What others can do with one effort, I do with a hundred; what others can do with ten efforts, I do with a thousand. If one truly follows this path, even the foolish will surely become wise, and even the weak will surely become strong.”
“From sincerity to understanding—this is called nature; from understanding to sincerity—this is called teaching. Sincerity leads to understanding, and understanding leads to sincerity.”
“Only the person of perfect sincerity in the world can fully realize his own nature. Being able to fully realize his own nature, he can then fully realize the nature of others. Being able to fully realize the nature of others, he can then fully realize the nature of all things. Being able to fully realize the nature of all things, he can then assist Heaven and Earth in their transforming and nourishing work. Being able to assist Heaven and Earth in their transforming and nourishing work, he can then form a triad with Heaven and Earth.”
“Those of the next order focus on one particular aspect of goodness. By focusing on one particular aspect of goodness, they can also attain sincerity. When sincerity is attained, it will manifest itself; manifesting itself, it will become evident; becoming evident, it will become brilliant; becoming brilliant, it will move others’ hearts; moving others’ hearts, it will bring about transformation; bringing about transformation, it can then transform and nourish all things. Only the person of perfect sincerity in the world can transform and nourish all things.”
“The state of utmost sincerity can foreknow the future. When a state is about to flourish, there will surely be auspicious omens; when a state is about to perish, there will surely be strange and eerie occurrences. These appear in the divining stalks and tortoise shells, and are reflected in the movements of the limbs. When calamity or blessing is about to come, good things will surely be known beforehand, and bad things will also surely be known beforehand. Therefore, utmost sincerity is like a spirit.”
“Sincerity is self-completing, and the Way is self-guiding. Sincerity runs through the beginning and end of all things. Without sincerity, there are no things. Thus the noble person values sincerity. Sincerity does not merely complete oneself; it is also used to complete others. Completing oneself is Ren (benevolence); completing others is Zhi (wisdom). This is the virtue of one’s nature, and the principle that unites the inner and outer, so it is fitting whenever applied.”
“Therefore, utmost sincerity never ceases. Never ceasing leads to duration; duration leads to manifestation; manifestation leads to vastness; vastness leads to breadth and depth; breadth and depth leads to loftiness and brilliance. Breadth and depth is for bearing all things; loftiness and brilliance is for covering all things; vast duration is for completing all things. Breadth and depth matches the Earth; loftiness and brilliance matches Heaven; vast duration has no boundary. Reaching this state, it does not manifest yet is naturally evident, does not act yet naturally transforms, does nothing yet naturally accomplishes. The principle of Heaven and Earth can be summed up in one sentence: as their activity is undivided, their production of all things is unfathomable. The principle of Heaven and Earth is breadth, depth, loftiness, brilliance, vastness, and duration.”
“Now look at Heaven: originally it was but a little light; but when it becomes boundless, the sun, moon, and stars are suspended in it, and all things are covered by it. Now look at Earth: originally it was but a handful of soil; but when it becomes vast and deep, it bears Mount Hua without feeling heavy, contains rivers and seas without leaking, and all things are borne upon it. Now look at a mountain: originally it was but a small rock; but when it becomes vast and lofty, grass and trees grow on it, birds and beasts dwell on it, and treasures are produced from it. Now look at water: originally it was but a ladleful; but when it becomes unfathomable, turtles, alligators, dragons, fish, and turtles grow in it, and goods and wealth multiply from it. The Book of Songs says: ‘The movement of Heaven is profound and never ceasing.’ This probably speaks of the reason why Heaven is Heaven. ‘Ah, how glorious! The virtue of King Wen is so pure.’ This probably speaks of the reason why King Wen is honored as ‘Wen.’ Purity is also never ceasing.”
“Great indeed is the Way of the sage! Boundless and vast, it transforms and nourishes all things, towering to Heaven. How ample and grand it is! There are three hundred rituals and three thousand rules of conduct; these must await the appearance of a sage before they can be practiced. Therefore it is said: ‘Without the highest virtue, the highest Way cannot be consolidated.’ Thus the noble person honors his virtuous nature and pursues learning to attain the Way, reaches the vast realm and exhausts the subtle points, attains the highest level and follows the Mean. He reviews the old to gain new understanding, is sincere and honest, and esteems propriety. Therefore, when in a high position he is not arrogant, and when in a low position he does not rebel. When the state is well governed, his words are sufficient to bring prosperity; when the state is in darkness, his silence is sufficient to preserve himself. The Book of Songs says: ‘Both wise and penetrating, thus preserving himself.’ Is this not what is meant?”
Confucius said: “The foolish but fond of self-righteousness, the lowly but fond of arbitrary action. Born in this present age, yet they wish to restore the ways of antiquity. Such people will surely bring calamity upon themselves.” Without the position of the Son of Heaven, one does not discuss ritual, establish standards, or examine written characters. Now in the world, the wheel tracks are the same, the written characters are the same, and the conduct and ethics are the same. Even if one has the position of the Son of Heaven, without the corresponding virtue, he dares not create ritual and music; even if one has the virtue, without the corresponding position, he also dares not create ritual and music. Confucius said: “I can explain the ritual of the Xia dynasty, but its descendant state Qi is insufficient to verify it. I studied the ritual of the Yin dynasty, and the state of Song still preserves it. I studied the ritual of the Zhou dynasty, and it is now in use, so I follow the Zhou ritual.”
“There are three important matters in governing the world; if these are done well, there will likely be few errors! The ritual of former dynasties, though good, lacks verification; without verification, the people do not believe; without belief, the people do not follow. The teachings of a sage in a low position, though good, lack authority; without authority, the people do not believe; without belief, the people do not follow. Therefore, the Way of the noble person originates from himself and is verified among the people. It is examined against the ritual of the three sage kings of Xia, Shang, and Zhou without error, established before Heaven and Earth without contradiction, questioned before the spirits without doubt, and awaits the appearance of a sage even after a hundred generations without confusion. Questioned before the spirits without doubt—this is knowing the principle of Heaven; awaits the sage after a hundred generations without confusion—this is knowing human feelings. Therefore, the actions of the noble person can become the Way of the world for generations, his conduct can become the law of the world for generations, his words can become the standard of the world for generations. Those far from him look up to him; those near him do not tire of him. The Book of Songs says: ‘There none dislike him, here none tire of him; almost day and night, ever striving to preserve his good reputation.’ The noble person never fails to act thus and yet become early renowned in the world.”
“Confucius traced back to Yao and Shun, and modeled himself on King Wen and King Wu. Above, he followed the seasons of Heaven; below, he conformed to the conditions of Earth. He was like Heaven and Earth, which nothing fails to bear and nothing fails to cover. He was like the four seasons alternating, the sun and moon shining in turn. All things grow together without harming each other; the various ways proceed in parallel without conflicting. Small virtues flow like rivers; great virtues are deep and transform all things. This is the reason why Heaven and Earth are great.”
“Only the most sage person in the world can be keen-eyed, sharp-eared, wise, and intelligent, sufficient to oversee the world; broad, generous, gentle, and soft, sufficient to embrace all things; vigorous, strong, firm, and resolute, sufficient to make decisions; orderly, dignified, upright, and fair, sufficient to command respect; cultured, methodical, meticulous, and discerning, sufficient to distinguish right and wrong. His virtue is vast as Heaven and deep as an abyss, and it manifests itself at all times. When he appears, the people all respect him; when he speaks, the people all trust him; when he acts, the people all delight in him. Therefore, his fame fills the Central Lands and spreads to the barbarian tribes of the four directions. Wherever boats and carriages reach, wherever human strength passes, wherever Heaven covers, wherever Earth bears, wherever the sun and moon shine, wherever frost and dew fall—all beings with blood and breath none fail to honor and draw near to him. Therefore it is said: ‘His virtue matches Heaven.’”
“Only the person of perfect sincerity in the world can regulate the great principles of the world, establish the great foundation of the world, and understand the transforming and nourishing work of Heaven and Earth. On what does he rely? How earnest is his Ren (benevolence)! How profound is his Zhi (wisdom)! How vast is his mind! If he were not originally intelligent, wise, and penetrating to the virtue of Heaven, who could know this?”
The Book of Songs says: "Wearing a brocade garment, with a plain jacket over it." This is to dislike the pattern of the brocade being too conspicuous. Therefore, the way of the noble person is outwardly plain but grows more brilliant day by day; the way of the petty person is outwardly showy but fades day by day. The way of the noble person is bland yet not, simple yet adorned, gentle yet ordered. Knowing that the far begins from the near, knowing the source of prevailing winds, knowing that the hidden becomes manifest—this enables one to enter the realm of sage virtue. The Book of Songs says: "Though hidden at the bottom of the water, it is still clearly seen." Therefore, the noble person examines himself and finds no shame; his inner resolve has no deficiency. What makes the noble person hard to match is perhaps in what others cannot see. The Book of Songs says: "Look at you alone in your chamber—be blameless even before the spirits." Therefore, the noble person commands respect without acting and inspires trust without speaking. The Book of Songs says: "Silently offering sincerity, at this time there is no contention." Hence, the noble person need not bestow rewards for the people to encourage themselves; need not show anger for the people to revere him more than axes and halberds. The Book of Songs says: "Greatly manifesting virtue, the lords will emulate it." Therefore, the noble person, being sincere and reverent, brings peace to all under Heaven. The Book of Songs says: "I cherish the bright virtue; it needs no loud voice or stern countenance." Confucius said: "Using a loud voice and stern countenance to influence the people is the inferior method. The Book of Songs says: 'Virtue is as light as a feather.'" Yet a feather still has a form to which it can be compared. "Heaven nurtures all things, without sound or scent." This is the highest realm.