Tan Gong Part 2
If the legitimate eldest son of a ruler dies before reaching adulthood, three funeral carriages are used for the burial; if a ruler’s illegitimate son dies before adulthood, one funeral carriage is used; if the legitimate eldest son of a great officer dies before adulthood, one funeral carriage is also used.
At the funeral of a ruler, all officers who receive direct commands from the ruler have their eldest sons carry the mourning staff.
When a ruler goes to condole at the funeral of a great officer, he first visits the mourning shed before the burial. When the coffin is about to be carried out, the ruler orders those pulling the hearse to move forward, stopping after three steps, and this is repeated three times, after which the ruler withdraws. This is also done at the morning sacrifice and at the place where the coffin is temporarily placed.
Those who are fifty years old and have no carriage do not cross the border to condole with others.
When Ji Wuzi was ill in bed, Ji Gu entered to visit him without taking off his mourning garments of coarse hemp, saying, “This ritual is nearly lost. It is only when a scholar enters the ruler’s gate that he removes his mourning garments.” Ji Wuzi said, “Is this not excellent? A gentleman should indeed make manifest those subtle rituals.” When Ji Wuzi died, Zeng Dian leaned against his gate and sang.
When a great officer goes to condole, if it happens that the host family is engaged in sacrificial or other affairs, he sends someone to decline the visit. On the day of condolence, music is not played. Women do not cross the border to condole with others. On the day of condolence, one does not drink wine or eat meat. Those attending a funeral must help pull the hearse; if they follow the coffin to the grave, they all grasp the ropes for lowering the coffin.
When there is a death and the ruler comes to condole, there must be someone to act as the representative of the host to bow in thanks, even if it is a friend, a fellow villager, a neighbor, or a guest residing there. When condoling, the ruler says, “I, the orphaned ruler, have come to assist in the mourning.” The host says, “I am honored by your presence.” If the ruler encounters a funeral procession on the road, he must send someone to condole. At the funeral of a great officer, the son by a concubine does not receive condolences.
When the wife’s brother, who is the heir of the father-in-law, dies, one wails for him in the main hall. The son of the principal wife acts as the chief mourner, baring his left arm, untying his cap and binding his hair, beating his breast, and stamping his feet. The husband enters from the right side of the gate and sends someone to stand outside the gate to inform those who come to condole. If the visitor is a close relative, they enter and wail. If the father-in-law is still alive, the wailing takes place in the wife’s chamber. If the wife’s brother is not the father-in-law’s heir, the wailing takes place in another chamber.
If there is a coffin in the mourning shed and one hears of the death of a distant cousin, one wails for him in a side chamber. If there is no side chamber, one wails to the right inside the gate. If it is a brother from the same state, one goes to his house to wail.
When Zizhang died, Zengzi happened to be mourning for his mother. He went to wail for Zizhang wearing his mourning garments of coarse hemp. Someone said, “One should not go to condole with others while wearing these mourning garments.” Zengzi said, “Am I going to condole?” (meaning he was going as a chief mourner, not as a visitor.)
When You Ruo died, Duke Dao of Lu went to condole. Ziyou acted as the attendant, standing to the left of the duke.
The state of Qi mourned for the royal princess who had married into Qi. Duke Zhuang of Lu wore the great-garment mourning for her. Some said, “Because the royal princess was married from Lu, they mourned for her as for a sister.” Others said, “The royal princess was Duke Zhuang’s maternal grandmother, so he wore the great-garment mourning.”
When Duke Xian of Jin died, Duke Mu of Qin sent an envoy to condole with Prince Chong’er, saying, “I have heard that losing the state often occurs at such a time, and gaining the state also often occurs at such a time. Although you are solemnly dwelling in the bitterness of mourning, you cannot remain in exile for too long, nor should you miss the opportunity. Please consider this carefully.” Chong’er reported this to his uncle Fan, who said, “You should decline. Exiles have nothing precious; only benevolence and family affection are precious. What does the death of a father mean? If you take this opportunity to seek personal gain, who in the world would understand you? You should decline.” Prince Chong’er said to the envoy from Qin, “I am grateful that the ruler has sent you to condole with the exiled subject Chong’er. I am in exile, and my father has died, yet I cannot participate in the rituals of weeping and mourning, causing the ruler to worry for me. What does the death of a father mean? How dare I have any other thoughts to disgrace the noble righteousness of the ruler?” Having said this, he only knocked his head on the ground without performing the bow, rose weeping, and after rising, did not speak privately with the envoy. The envoy Zixian returned and reported to Duke Mu of Qin. Duke Mu said, “Prince Chong’er is truly benevolent! He knocked his head without bowing, showing that he has not yet assumed the position of heir, so he did not complete the bow. He rose weeping, which is an expression of love for his father. After rising, he did not speak privately with the envoy, which is distancing himself from personal gain.”
Setting up a curtain in the mourning shed is not an ancient ritual; it began when Jing Jiang wailed for Mu Bo.
Mourning rituals are the rites of utmost sorrow. Moderating sorrow is to comply with the changes of life and death; the gentleman thinks of this as the end of the parents’ grace in giving birth. Calling back the soul is the practice of exhausting the way of love, with the intention of praying to the spirits, hoping the dead may return from the dark realm. This is the method of supplicating the ghosts and spirits. Facing north is the meaning of praying to the dark realm. Kneeling and knocking the head is the expression of the deepest pain in sorrow; knocking the head is the most intense of pains. Placing rice and cowrie shells in the mouth of the dead is because one cannot bear the mouth to be empty, but one does not use the way of the living in eating and drinking; these are merely fine items. The inscribed banner is a banner to make the identity of the dead known, because the dead can no longer be recognized, so a flag is used to mark them. Loving him, one records him; respecting him, one exhausts the way of ritual. The “chong” (temporary spirit tablet) is a substitute for the spirit tablet. The Yin dynasty established the spirit tablet and still attached the “chong”; the Zhou dynasty established the spirit tablet and then removed the “chong”. In sacrifices, plain vessels are used, because the living have a sorrowful and plain heart. Only in the rituals of sacrifice does the host exhaust his own intention—how does he know that the spirits will enjoy the offerings? It is only because the host has a reverent and orderly intention. Beating the chest and stamping the feet is the extreme expression of sorrow, but it has a fixed number of times, which is to moderate and regulate it. Baring the left arm and binding the hair with hemp is a change in appearance; anger is a transformation of sorrow. Removing adornments is to discard elegance; baring the left arm and binding the hair with hemp is the most extreme form of removing adornments. Sometimes baring, sometimes putting on clothes, this is the moderation of sorrow. Wearing the cap and adding the hempen sash for burial is the ritual of interacting with the spirits, with a reverent heart. The Zhou dynasty wore the cap at burial; the Yin dynasty wore the xu cap at burial. Drinking gruel is given to the chief mourner, the principal wife, and the steward, because one fears they may become ill from sorrow; the ruler commands them to eat. Ascending the hall upon returning to wail is returning to the place where the dead did their work; the principal wife enters the chamber, which is returning to the place where the dead was supported. When friends and relatives come to condole upon returning to wail, sorrow reaches its utmost, because returning home but not seeing the dead, losing him forever, at this time sorrow is most intense. The Yin dynasty conducted condolence after the burial and sealing of the grave; the Zhou dynasty conducted condolence after returning to wail. Confucius said, “The practice of the Yin is too simple; I follow the practice of the Zhou.” Burying in the north, with the head facing north, is the ritual of the three dynasties, because it is to return to the dark place. After the burial and sealing of the grave, the host performs the gift of silk, while the invocator goes to welcome the representative of the spirit for the sacrifice of repose. After returning to wail, the host and relevant persons inspect the sacrificial animal for the sacrifice of repose. The relevant persons place the mats and mats to the left of the grave, perform the offering, and then return. At noon, the sacrifice of repose is performed. Performing the sacrifice of repose on the same day as the burial is because one cannot bear for the dead to be without family for even one day. In this month, the sacrifice of repose replaces the funeral offering. The sacrifice of cessation of wailing is called “completing the matter”; on this day, the auspicious sacrifice replaces the mourning sacrifice. The next day, the sacrifice of association is performed, placing the spirit tablet of the dead in the ancestral temple. Changing from mourning sacrifice to auspicious sacrifice, up to the sacrifice of association, must be done continuously on this day, because one cannot bear for the dead to be without a resting place for even one day. The Yin dynasty performed the sacrifice of association after the sacrifice of the first year; the Zhou dynasty performed it after the sacrifice of cessation of wailing. Confucius considered the practice of the Yin to be good.
When a ruler personally attends the funeral of a subject, he brings with him a shaman, an invocator, peach branches, a broom, and guards holding halberds. This is because he detests the smell of death, and it shows that he treats the dead differently from the living.
In funerary rites, there is a way of treating the dead as if they were dead—this is the reason the former kings found it difficult to articulate clearly. In funerary rites, the ceremony of presenting the deceased to the ancestral temple is performed first, following the filial heart of the dead, who grieves at leaving his own dwelling, so he must go to the temple of his grandfather and father before departing. The Yin people, after this presentation, parked the coffin in the ancestral temple; the Zhou people, after this presentation, went directly to burial.
Confucius said: "Those who make spirit vessels understand the way of funerals. They prepare articles, yet they cannot be used. How sad! If the dead use the living’s utensils, would that not be close to using humans for burial? That which is called a 'spirit vessel' is treated as something divine. Carts made of clay and figures woven from grass have existed since ancient times—this is the principle of spirit vessels." Confucius considered that making grass figures was benevolent, but making clay figurines was not benevolent, because would that not be close to using humans for burial?
Duke Mu of Lu asked Zisi: "Is it an ancient rite to mourn for a former lord?" Zisi said: "In ancient times, a nobleman employed people with propriety and dismissed them with propriety, so there was a rite of wearing mourning for a former lord. Now, a nobleman employs people as if he would hold them to his knee, and dismisses them as if he would push them into an abyss. In such a case, if the former minister does not become a leader in attacking the state, that is already fortunate—how could there be a rite of wearing mourning?"
When Duke Dao of Lu died, Ji Zhaozi asked Meng Jingzi: "In mourning for the lord, what should one eat?" Meng Jingzi said: "Drinking congee is a universal rite. But our three families (Ji, Meng, and Shu) cannot serve the lord with the rites of a minister—the four directions all know this. If I force myself to become emaciated to follow the rites, though I could do it, would it not make people suspect that I am not acting from true feeling but deliberately becoming thin? I will eat as usual."
When Situ Jingzi of Wei died, Zixia went to offer condolences. At that time, the host had not yet performed the lesser encoffining, so Zixia entered wearing the hempen headband. Ziyou went to offer condolences. After the host had completed the lesser encoffining, Ziyou went out, put on the hempen headband, then returned to weep and offer condolences. Zixia said: "Have you heard of such a practice?" Ziyou said: "I heard from the Master: when the host has not yet changed his garments (i.e., not yet formally entered mourning), the condolence visitor does not wear the hempen headband."
Zengzi said: "Yanzi can be said to have understood the rites. He had both a reverent heart and a humble demeanor." Youzi said: "Yanzi wore one fox-fur robe for thirty years. When he buried someone, he used only one funeral cart, and after sending it to the grave, he returned. According to the rites, a lord has seven funeral offerings and uses seven carts; a high official has five funeral offerings and uses five carts. How could Yanzi understand the rites?" Zengzi said: "When the state is without the Way, the nobleman is ashamed to fully follow the rites. When the state is extravagant, one should show frugality; when the state is frugal, one should show ritual propriety."
When the mother of Guo Zhaozi died, he asked Zizhang: "At the burial, when going to the grave, where should the men and women stand?" Zizhang said: "When Situ Jingzi died, the Master served as the director of rites. The men faced west, and the women faced east." Guo Zhaozi said: "Alas! Do not do it that way." He added: "This is my funeral; everyone will come to watch. You simply preside. The guests are guests, the host is host. The women shall follow the men, all facing west."
When Mubo died, Jing Jiang wept only during the daytime. When Wenbo died, Jing Jiang wept both day and night. Confucius said: "She understood the rites." When Wenbo died, Jing Jiang leaned against his bed and did not weep, saying: "In the past, when I had this son, I thought he would become a worthy man, and I never used him to go to the ducal court for show. Now that he is dead, his friends and many ministers have no tears for him, yet the inner-chamber wives and concubines all wail loudly. This son must have been greatly negligent in ritual."
When the mother of Ji Kangzi died, he laid out her undergarments (as burial garments). Jing Jiang said: "A woman, without proper adornment, dare not see her parents-in-law. Now there will be guests from the four directions—why are undergarments laid out here?" She ordered them removed.
Youzi and Ziyou were standing together, and saw a child weeping like a child longing for its parents (i.e., with filial yearning). Youzi said to Ziyou: "I have never understood why in mourning rites there is beating the breast and stamping the feet. I have long wanted to abolish it. True feeling lies in such weeping—is this not it?" Ziyou said: "Rites include those that restrain emotions and those that use external things to arouse emotions. Expressing feelings directly and acting straightaway—that is the way of the Rong and Di barbarians. The principle of rites is not like this. When a person is joyful, he feels elated; elated, he chants; chanting, he sways; swaying, he dances; dancing, he becomes angry; angry, he becomes sorrowful; sorrowful, he sighs; sighing, he beats his breast; beating his breast, he stamps his feet. Differentiating and restraining these emotions—this is called ritual. When a person dies, he becomes repulsive. The dead can do nothing, and people tend to abandon him. Therefore, they make binding bands, burial coverings, set up coffin ornaments and feather fans, to keep people from loathing the dead. At the moment of death, dried meat and minced meat sauce are offered as sacrifices. When about to go to burial, a farewell offering is set out. After burial, a repose sacrifice is offered for sustenance—but one never sees the dead actually partaking of these offerings. From high antiquity to now, these sacrifices have never been abandoned—this is to keep people from abandoning the dead. Therefore, what you criticize in the rites is not actually the fault of the rites."
The state of Wu invaded Chen, cut down trees at sacrificial sites, killed the sick among the people, and then withdrew beyond the borders. The Grand Steward Pi of Chen came to the Wu army. Fuchai said to the protocol officer Yi: "This man is very eloquent. Why not try asking him: when an army goes on an expedition, it must have a name. What would others call this army?" The Grand Steward Pi said: "In ancient times, when invading or attacking another state, they did not cut down sacrificial trees, did not kill the sick, and did not capture those with graying hair. Now this army—did it kill the sick? Would it not be called 'the army that kills the sick'?" Fuchai said: "If I return your land and release your children, what would it be called then?" The Grand Steward Pi said: "The lord punished our state for its crimes and then took pity and pardoned us—such an army, would it be without a name?"
Yanding was skilled in mourning: when his relative had just died, he was anxious and unsettled, as if seeking something he could not find; at the time of encoffining, he looked forward with expectation, as if wanting to follow something but could not catch up; after the burial, he sighed with emotion, as if he could not wait for the deceased to return before ceasing.
Zizhang asked: "The Book of Documents says: 'King Gaozong of Yin did not speak for three years, and when he spoke, everyone rejoiced.' Is this so?" Confucius said: "How could it not be so? In ancient times, when the Son of Heaven died, the crown prince entrusted government affairs to the chief minister for three years, and did not speak himself."
When Zhi Daozi died, before he was buried, Duke Ping of Jin drank wine, with Shi Kuang and Li Diao attending, and struck the bells. Du Kuai came in from outside, heard the bells, and asked: "Where is this?" The reply was: "In the inner chamber." Du Kuai entered the inner chamber, ascended the steps, poured a cup of wine, and said: "Shi Kuang, drink this." He poured another cup and said: "Li Diao, drink this." He poured another cup, sat facing north in the hall, and drank it himself. Then he descended the steps and walked out quickly. Duke Ping called him back and said: "Du Kuai, just now you perhaps intended to admonish me, so I did not speak to you. You had Shi Kuang drink—why?" Du Kuai said: "On the days of Zi and Mao, music is not played. Zhi Daozi's coffin is still in the hall—this is more important than the days of Zi and Mao. Shi Kuang is the Grand Music Master, but he did not tell you this, so I punished him with a drink." "You had Li Diao drink—why?" Du Kuai said: "Li Diao is your close attendant. For the sake of eating and drinking, he forgot your fault, so I punished him with a drink." "You drank yourself—why?" Du Kuai said: "I, Du Kuai, am a cook. I did not attend to the knives and ladles, but dared to involve myself in remonstrance and prevention—so I punished myself with a drink." Duke Ping said: "I also have a fault. Pour a cup and punish me." Du Kuai washed the cup and raised it. Duke Ping said to his attendants: "When I die, do not discard this cup." Until today, when the wine is offered and the cup is raised, it is called "Du's Toast."
Gongshu Wenzi died. His son Shu requested a posthumous title from the ruler, saying: "The date for the burial has already been set, and we are about to inter him. I beg you to grant a title to replace his name." The ruler said: "In former times, when Wei suffered a severe famine, the master boiled porridge to feed the starving people within the state—was this not benevolent? In former times, when Wei was in distress, the master defended me with his life—was this not loyal and steadfast? The master governed the affairs of Wei, rectified the ranks and regulations, and used them to interact with the neighboring states in all directions. The altars of Wei suffered no disgrace—was this not cultured and virtuous? Therefore, call the master 'Zhen Hui Wenzi' (Faithful, Benevolent, and Cultured)."
Shi Taizhong died. He had no legitimate sons, only six sons by concubines. They used divination to determine the successor. The diviner said: "First bathe and wear a jade pendant, and you will receive an auspicious omen." Five of them bathed and put on jade pendants. Shi Qizi said: "How could one, while mourning for a parent, bathe and wear a jade pendant?" He did not bathe nor wear a jade pendant. Shi Qizi received the auspicious omen. The people of Wei considered the tortoise shell to possess spiritual power.
Chen Ziche died in Wei. His wife and the household steward planned to use living people as burial victims. After the plan was settled, Chen Zikang arrived. They told him, saying: "The master was ill, and there is no one to serve him in the underworld. We request to use living people as burial victims." Zikang said: "Using living people as burial victims is not in accordance with ritual. Nevertheless, when he was ill, who ought to have served him? Could any be more fitting than his wife and the steward? If it can be stopped, I wish to stop it. If it cannot be stopped, I wish to use the two of you as burial victims." So the plan was not carried out.
Zilu said: "Poverty is truly lamentable. While alive, one cannot support one's parents; when they die, one cannot conduct the funeral according to ritual." Confucius said: "Even if one only drinks bean broth and plain water, as long as it makes one's parents happy, this is filial piety. When laying out the body, if one can cover the hands and feet, and then bury immediately without an outer coffin, as long as it matches one's means, this is ritual."
Duke Xian of Wei went into exile. Later, when he returned to Wei and reached the outskirts, he planned to bestow towns as rewards on those who had followed him before entering the city. Liu Zhuang said: "If everyone had stayed to guard the altars, who would have held the reins and followed you? If everyone had followed you, who would have guarded the altars? For a ruler, upon returning to his state, to have private intentions—is this perhaps not permissible?" So no rewards were given.
There was a Grand Scribe in Wei named Liu Zhuang, who lay ill in bed. Duke Xian of Wei said: "If his condition becomes critical, even if I am in the midst of a sacrifice, you must come and report it." Duke Xian performed the double kowtow and head-touching rite to the personator of the dead, and requested, saying: "There is a minister named Liu Zhuang, who is not merely my minister, but a minister of the altars. I hear that he has died. Please allow me to go and offer condolences." Without taking off his sacrificial robes, he went, and then presented those robes as a gift to the deceased. He bestowed upon him the towns of Qiushi and Xianpan, wrote a deed and placed it in the coffin, saying: "For generations, for ten thousand descendants, do not change."
Chen Ganxi lay ill in bed. He instructed his brothers and commanded his son Zunji, saying: "If I die, you must make me a large coffin, and have my two concubines lie beside me." After Chen Ganxi died, his son said: "Using living people as burial victims is not in accordance with ritual, much less putting them in the same coffin!" So he did not kill the two concubines.
Zhong Sui died at Chui. On the Renwu day, they still performed the yi sacrifice the day after the main sacrifice. The Wan dance entered, but the Yue dance was withdrawn. Confucius said: "This is not in accordance with ritual. When a high minister dies, the yi sacrifice ought not to be performed."
Ji Kangzi's mother died. Gongshu Ruo was young at the time and was in charge of the encoffining. Gongshu Ban requested to use a mechanical device to lower the coffin. Ji Kangzi was about to agree. Gongshu Jia said: "No! Lu has old precedents: for the ruler's house, the coffin is lowered with a monumental stele; for the three great houses, the coffin is lowered with. Gongshu Ban, you are taking another's mother to test your skill. Is it absolutely necessary to do this? If you cannot test your skill on a person, will it cause you pain? Alas!" So the request was not followed.
At the battle of Lang, Gongshu Yuren encountered a man carrying a staff who had fled into the city to rest. He said: "Though the corvée labor causes the people pain and the taxes burden them heavily, the gentleman cannot plan for the state, and the officer cannot die for the state. This will not do! Since I have spoken these words..." He then went forward with a young man from the neighborhood, Wang Yi, and both died in battle. The people of Lu wanted to bury Wang Yi without using the rites for a minor who died prematurely. They consulted Confucius. Confucius said: "He was able to take up arms and defend the altars. Even if one wishes to bury him without using the rites for a minor, is it not permissible?"
Zilu was leaving Lu. He said to Yan Yuan: "What words will you use to see me off?" Yan Yuan said: "I have heard: When leaving one's state, one should face the ancestral tombs and weep before setting out on the road. When returning to one's state, one need not weep; one should inspect the tombs and then enter the city." Yan Yuan said to Zilu: "What words will you use to make me feel at ease?" Zilu said: "I have heard: When passing by a grave, one should lean forward on the crossbar in respect. When passing by a sacrificial site, one should dismount from the carriage."
Gongyin Shangyang and Chen Qiji pursued the army of Wu. They caught up with them. Chen Qiji said to Gongyin Shangyang: "This is the king's business. You may take the bow in hand." Gongyin Shangyang then took the bow in hand. "You may shoot." He shot, killing one man, and put the bow back in its case. They pursued again, and Chen Qiji spoke to him again. He killed two more men. Each time he killed a man, Gongyin Shangyang covered his eyes. He told the driver to stop the carriage, saying: "At court I have no seat; at feasts I have no place. Having killed three men, it is enough to return and report." Confucius said: "Even amidst killing, there is ritual."
The various lords jointly attacked Qin. Duke Huan of Cao died during the. The lords requested permission to perform the rite of placing jade in the mouth of the deceased. The men of Cao had them perform the rite of laying out the corpse.
Duke Xiang went to pay court to Chu. King Kang of Chu died. The men of Chu said: "We must request the ruler of Lu to perform the rite of laying out the corpse for the deceased." The men of Lu said: "This is not in accordance with ritual." The men of Chu forced them. So the shaman first took peach branches and a broom and brushed them over the bier. The men of Chu regretted it.
At the funeral of Duke Cheng of Teng, Lu sent Zishu Jingshu to offer condolences and present the condolence gifts, with Zifu Huibo as assistant. When they reached the outskirts of Teng, because they encountered the death-day anniversary of Yibo, Zishu Jingshu refused to enter the city. Huibo said: "This is a public matter. One cannot fail to carry out public business because of a private matter concerning one's uncle." So they entered the city.
Duke Ai sent someone to offer condolences to Kui Shang. They met him on the road. Kui Shang avoided the road, drew the outline of a chamber, and received the condolences there. Zengzi said: "Kui Shang does not understand ritual as well as the wife of Qiliang. Duke Zhuang of Qi attacked Ju from Duo. Qiliang died in battle. His wife met his bier on the road and wept very bitterly. Duke Zhuang sent someone to offer condolences to her. She replied: 'If the ruler's minister had committed a crime, he would be exposed in the market or court, and his wife and concubines would be taken into custody. If the ruler's minister was without crime, then there is still the ruined house left by his forefathers. The ruler need not condescend to send someone to offer condolences to me.'"
At the funeral of the child Huang, Duke Ai wished to set up a bo (device for pulling the hearse). He asked You Ruo. You Ruo said: "It is permissible. Your three ministers have set it up." Yan Liu said: "The Son of Heaven uses a dragon hearse, with an outer coffin and curtains. The feudal lords use a hearse, with curtains set up outside. Because one must prevent the elm-wood coffin from sinking, the bo is set up. Those three ministers did not use a hearse, yet they set up the bo. This is to steal an inappropriate element of ritual. Why should you imitate them?"
Duke Dao's mother died. Duke Ai wore the hempen mourning garments of Qi for her. You Ruo said: "Is it in accordance with ritual to wear Qi for a concubine?" Duke Ai said: "Can I do otherwise? The people of Lu regard her as my wife."
Ji Zigao buried his wife. He trampled on another person's seedlings. Shen Xiang reported this to him, saying: "I request that you compensate them." Zigao said: "The Meng family does not blame me for this, and my friends do not abandon me because of it, because I am the chief of this settlement. If I were to purchase a road in order to conduct the burial, it would be difficult to do so in the future."
For one who held office but had no salary, if the ruler made a gift, it was called "an offering." When sending an envoy, one referred to the ruler as "our." After leaving, if the ruler died, one did not wear mourning for him.
After burial, at the Yu sacrifice, a representative of the dead was set up, with a table and mat. After the Fu sacrifice, taboos were observed; the affairs of the living were concluded, and the affairs of the spirits began. After the Fu sacrifice, the cook took a wooden-clappered bell and proclaimed orders in the palace, saying: "Set aside the old taboos and adopt the new taboos." This was done from the bedchamber gate to the storehouse gate.
For a name composed of two characters, one character alone is not avoided. For example, Confucius's mother was named Zhengzai; when saying "zai," one did not say "zheng," and when saying "zheng," one did not say "zai."
If there was a mourning event in the army, they wore plain clothes and wept outside the storehouse gate. The carriage announcing the mourning did not carry the bow-case or bow-sheath.
If someone burned the ancestral hall of a predecessor, they wept for three days. Hence it is said: "When the New Palace caught fire, they also wept for three days."
When Confucius passed by the side of Mount Tai, there was a woman weeping bitterly by a grave. Confucius leaned on the crossbar of his carriage to listen, and sent Zilu to ask her: "Your weeping is like one who has suffered deep sorrow." The woman said: "Indeed. Formerly, my father-in-law was killed by a tiger, then my husband was killed by a tiger, and now my son has also died." Confucius said: "Why do you not leave this place?" The woman said: "Here there is no oppressive government." Confucius said: "Young man, remember: oppressive government is fiercer than a tiger!"
There was a man of Lu named Zhou Feng. Duke Ai of Lu took gifts and went to request an audience with him. Zhou Feng said: "It cannot be done." Duke Ai said: "Then I will drop the matter." So he sent someone to ask him: "The lords of Yu did not practice integrity toward the people, yet the people trusted them; the lords of Xia did not practice respect toward the people, yet the people revered them. What did they do to receive such a response from the people?" Zhou Feng replied: "Among ruins and graves, without imposing grief on the people, the people naturally grieve; in the altars of the land and grain and in the ancestral temples, without imposing reverence on the people, the people naturally revere. The Yin people made oaths, and the people began to rebel; the Zhou people held covenants, and the people began to be suspicious. If one does not govern the people with ritual, righteousness, loyalty, integrity, and sincerity, even if one forcibly unites them, will the people not scatter?"
In managing mourning, one should not consider comfort in dwelling; in grief and emaciation, one should not harm the body. Managing mourning without considering dwelling is because there is no temple; grieving and emaciating without harming the body is for fear of having no descendants.
Jizi of Yanling went to Qi. On his return, his eldest son died, and he buried him between Ying and Bo. Confucius said: "Jizi of Yanling is one of Wu who is well-versed in ritual." So he went to observe his funeral. The depth of the grave pit did not reach the water table; the encoffining used ordinary clothes. After burial, the mound was raised, its width just covering the pit, its height allowing one to lean on it. When the mound was completed, Jizi bared his left arm, walked to the right around the mound, and wailed three times, saying: "Bones and flesh return to the earth—that is fate. As for the spirit breath, it goes nowhere it cannot go, nowhere it cannot go." After saying this, he left. Confucius said: "As for Jizi of Yanling, his observance of ritual can be said to have hit the mark."
At the mourning of Duke Kao of Zhulou, the ruler of Xu sent Rong Ju to offer condolences and perform the Han rite, saying: "My humble ruler sent me to perform the Han rite while seated, presenting the jade bi of a marquis; please allow me to perform the Han rite." The presiding officer said: "When a feudal lord condescends to our remote small state, if the ritual is simple, follow the simple; if the ritual is elaborate, follow the elaborate. A mixture of simple and elaborate has never occurred." Rong Ju replied: "I have heard: In serving one's ruler, one dares not forget one's ruler, nor forget one's ancestors. Formerly, our former ruler, Lord Ju, campaigned westward and crossed the Yellow River; there was no place where this saying was not used. I am a man of Lu; I dare not forget my ancestors." Zisi's mother died in Wei. When the news of mourning came to Zisi, he wept in the ancestral temple. A disciple arrived and said: "The mother of the Shi family has died; why do you weep in the temple of the Kong family?" Zisi said: "I was wrong; I was wrong." So he went to weep in another room.
When the Son of Heaven died, after three days the invocator first put on mourning garments; after five days the chief officers put on mourning garments; after seven days the men and women within the capital put on mourning garments; after three months everyone under Heaven put on mourning garments. The forest warden gathered various trees used for sacrifices; those that could be used for inner and outer coffins were cut down. If any were not delivered on time, his sacrifice was abolished and the man was put to death.
In Qi there was a severe famine. Qian Ao prepared food by the roadside, waiting to feed the hungry. A starving man came, covering his face with his sleeve, dragging his sandals, and with dim eyes. Qian Ao held food in his left hand and a drink in his right, and said: "Hey! Come and eat!" The starving man looked up at him and said: "It is precisely because I do not eat this kind of 'hey, come and eat' food that I have come to this state." Qian Ao then apologized to him; but the man ultimately refused to eat and died of starvation. Zengzi heard of this and said: "Is it not perhaps wrong? When he called out 'hey,' one could leave; but after he apologized, one could eat."
At the time of Duke Ding of Zhulou, there was a man who killed his own father. The presiding officer reported this matter. Duke Ding, startled, left his mat and said: "This is my crime." He then said: "I once studied how to judge such cases: When a minister kills his ruler, all officials are to kill him, without pardon; when a son kills his father, all who dwell in the palace are to kill him, without pardon. Kill that man, demolish his house, dig his foundation deep to form a pond. The ruler must wait a full month before he may lift his cup to drink."
When Xian Wenzi of Jin completed a new house, the high officers of Jin all went to congratulate him. Zhang Lao said: "How lofty and splendid! How brilliant and shining! Here one may sing, here one may weep, here one may gather the people of the state and the clan." Wenzi said: "I, Zhao Wu, being able to sing here, weep here, and gather the people of the state and the clan here—this means I can preserve my body and follow the former great officers in the Nine Highlands." He then bowed twice to the north and knocked his head to the ground. The junzi considered this to be skill in praising and skill in blessing.
Confucius's watchdog died. He sent Zigong to bury it, saying: "I have heard: Do not discard old curtains, for they can be used to bury a horse; do not discard old carriage covers, for they can be used to bury a dog. I, Qiu, am poor and have no carriage cover; when burying it, give it a mat as well, so that its head does not directly touch the earth." When the ruler's carriage horse died, it was buried with a curtain.
The mother of Jisun died. Duke Ai went to offer condolences, and Zengzi and Zigong also went. The gatekeeper, because the ruler was inside, would not let them in. Zengzi and Zigong went into the Jisun family's stable to adjust their appearance. Zigong entered first, and the gatekeeper said: "Just now you were already announced." Zengzi entered afterward, and the gatekeeper made way. When they entered the inner chamber, the high officers all left their positions, and Duke Ai also descended one step and bowed to them. The junzi, discussing this, said: "The principle of carefully adjusting one's appearance—its influence can reach such depth!"
A gate guard of Yangmen in Song died. Sicheng Zihan went into the funeral chamber and wept with great sorrow. A Jin spy sent to observe Song returned and reported to the Duke of Jin, saying: "A gate guard of Yangmen has died; Zihan wept with great sorrow, and the people are all pleased. It seems that Song cannot be attacked." When Confucius heard of this, he said: "Truly skilled in observing the condition of a state! The Book of Songs says: 'Whenever the people have mourning, crawl on hands and knees to help.' Even if it were not only Jin, who under Heaven could withstand Song?"
At the mourning of Duke Zhuang of Lu, after burial, people no longer entered the storehouse gate in mourning garments. The scholar-officials, after the Fu sacrifice, no longer wore mourning garments.
One of Confucius’s old friends was named Yuan Rang. His mother died, and Confucius helped him repair the coffin. Yuan Rang knocked on the wood and said, “I have not entrusted myself to music for a long time.” Then he sang: “The wildcat’s head has markings; holding your hand, how soft and tender.” Confucius passed by as if he had not heard. His follower said, “Can you not stop helping him?” Confucius said, “I have heard that a relative is always a relative, and an old friend is always an old friend.”
Zhao Wenzi and Shu Yu were touring the Nine Mounds. Wenzi said, “If the dead could be brought back to life, with whom should I associate?” Shu Yu said, “Perhaps it would be Yang Chu Fu?” Wenzi said, “He acted with rigid arbitrariness in Jin and did not end well; his wisdom is not worth praising.” “Then is it Jiu Fan?” Wenzi said, “When he saw benefit, he disregarded his lord; his Ren is not worth praising. I would probably follow Sui Wuzi. He benefited the lord without forgetting himself, and when planning for himself, he did not forget his friends.” The people of Jin considered Wenzi skilled in understanding people. This Wenzi, his body was so frail it seemed unable to support his clothes, and his speech stammered as if he could not utter words. Yet he recommended to Jin more than seventy families of officials who managed storehouses. While alive, he did not seek profit from them; when he died, he did not entrust his sons to them.
Shu Zhongpi studied under Zi Liu. Shu Zhongpi died, and his wife, a woman from Lu, wore the Qi Cui mourning garment and a twisted sash. Shu Zhongyan reported this to Zi Liu and requested that his sister-in-law change to wearing Zi Cui and a ring-shaped sash, saying, “Formerly, when I mourned for my aunt and sisters, it was also like this, and no one forbade me.” Zi Liu withdrew and had his own wife wear Zi Cui and a ring-shaped sash.
A man from Cheng had his own elder brother die but did not wear mourning garments. Hearing that Zi Gao was about to become the steward of Cheng, he then put on mourning clothes. The people of Cheng said, “The silkworm spins silk, but the crab has a basket; the bee wears a cap, but the cicada has a tassel; the elder brother dies, yet he waits for Zi Gao to come before putting on mourning clothes.”
Yuezheng Zichun’s mother died, and he did not eat for five days. He said, “I regret it. From my mother, I could not obtain my true feelings; where else can I use my true feelings?”
There was a drought, and Duke Mu summoned Xianzi to inquire about it, saying, “Heaven has not rained for a long time. I wish to expose emaciated people to the sun. What do you think?” Xianzi said, “Heaven has not rained for a long time, yet you wish to expose another’s sick child to the sun—this is cruelty. I fear it cannot be done.” The Duke said, “Then I wish to expose a shaman to the sun. What do you think?” Xianzi said, “Heaven does not rain, yet you place hope in a foolish woman. To seek rain in this way—I fear it is too far-fetched.” The Duke said, “Then what about moving the market?” Xianzi said, “When the Son of Heaven dies, a market is set up in the alleys for seven days; when a feudal lord dies, a market is set up in the alleys for three days. To move the market in order to seek rain—is that not also permissible?”
Confucius said, “The way the people of Wei combine burials is to place the two coffins separately. The way the people of Lu combine burials is to place the two coffins together. The Lu method is good.”