The Conveyance of Rites

In earlier times, Confucius participated in the wax sacrifice, acting as a guest. After the sacrifice concluded, he came out and strolled on the gate tower, letting out a long sigh. That sigh of Confucius was likely for the state of Lu. Yan Yan, who was at his side, asked: "Why does the noble one sigh?" Confucius said: "The era when the Great Way prevailed, and the ages when the three dynasties of Xia, Shang, and Zhou had wise and enlightened rulers—I, Qiu, was never able to witness them, yet I yearn for them in my heart. In the era when the Great Way prevailed, the world was shared by all under heaven. The virtuous and worthy were selected, the capable were promoted, integrity was cultivated, and harmony was fostered. Thus people did not love only their own parents, nor did they cherish only their own children. The aged were able to live out their years in peace, the able-bodied were able to employ their talents, the young were able to grow up smoothly. Widowers, widows, orphans, the childless elderly, the disabled, and the ill were all provided for. Men had their respective duties, and women had their proper homes. As for goods and wealth, people disliked seeing them discarded on the ground, but did not necessarily hoard them in their own homes. As for strength and labor, people disliked not exerting it from their own bodies, but did not necessarily do so for their own private gain. Therefore, cunning and deceit were prevented and did not arise; theft, rebellion, and harmful deeds did not occur. Hence, outer gates were left unbarred. This is called the 'Great Unity.'

"Now the Great Way has become hidden, and the world has become the private property of a single family. People love only their own parents and cherish only their own children; goods and strength are used for oneself. Rulers and lords make it a ritual system that father passes to son and elder brother passes to younger brother. They build inner and outer walls and moats to strengthen defenses; they take ritual and righteousness as the guiding principles: to regulate the relationship between ruler and minister, to deepen the relationship between father and son, to harmonize the relationship between elder and younger brothers, to reconcile the relationship between husband and wife; to establish institutions, to demarcate fields and dwellings; to honor the brave and the wise; and to attribute merit to oneself. Hence, schemes and plots arise from this, and warfare also emerges from this. Yu of Xia, Tang of Shang, King Wen of Zhou, King Wu of Zhou, King Cheng of Zhou, and the Duke of Zhou became outstanding figures by relying on these. These six noble men, none of them failed to adhere reverently to ritual. They used ritual to illuminate righteousness, to achieve integrity, to discern errors; they took Ren as the model, stressed yielding and deference, and showed the people the constant norms of conduct. If there were those who did not follow ritual, even if they had power and influence, they were dismissed, and the people regarded them as calamities. This is called the 'Small Tranquility.'"

Yan Yan further asked: "Is ritual truly so urgent?" Confucius said: "Ritual is that by which the former kings received the Way of Heaven and governed human emotions. Therefore, if one loses ritual, death follows; if one obtains ritual, survival follows. The Book of Songs says: 'Look at that rat—it still has a form; but a person without ritual—if a person has no ritual, why not quickly die!' Hence, ritual must be rooted in Heaven, modeled after Earth, arrayed among ghosts and spirits, and pervade mourning rites, sacrifice rites, archery rites, chariot-driving rites, capping rites, marriage rites, audience rites, and rites. Therefore, the sage uses ritual to illuminate all under heaven, and thus the world and the state can be governed."

Yan Yan further asked: "The Master so strongly esteems ritual—may I hear the reasoning behind it?" Confucius said: "I wished to observe the ritual system of the Xia dynasty, so I went to the state of Qi, but there it was insufficient for verification; I obtained their calendrical text, the 'Xia Shi.' I wished to observe the ritual system of the Yin dynasty, so I went to the state of Song, but there it was also insufficient for verification; I obtained their divination text, the 'Kun Qian.' The principles contained in the 'Kun Qian' and the gradations manifested in the 'Xia Shi'—from these I beheld the evolution of ritual.

"Ritual began with food and drink. In those times, people roasted millet over fire, tore apart pork and grilled it, dug pits in the ground to hold liquor, drank it by cupping their hands, and used bundles of straw and lumps of earth as drumsticks and drums. Yet, even in such simplicity, they could still express reverence to the ghosts and spirits. When a person died, relatives would ascend the roof and call out, saying: 'Alas! So-and-so, return!' Then they would place raw grain in the mouth of the deceased and wrap cooked meat as an offering. Thus, after death, the soul was summoned toward Heaven, while the body was buried in the earth; the physical form and the ethereal soul descended below, while the essential spirit ascended on high. Therefore, the dead are placed with heads to the north, and the living face south—all following the customs of the earliest times.

"In earlier times, the former kings did not yet have palaces and chambers; in winter they dwelt in caves, and in summer they dwelt in nests built in trees. They had no fire to process food; they ate the fruits of plants and the flesh of birds and beasts, drank their blood, and swallowed it together with the fur and feathers. They had no hemp or silk, and wore bird feathers and animal skins.

"Later, sages appeared, and then they utilized the convenience of fire, smelted metals, tempered clay, built terraces, towers, palaces, chambers, doors, and windows; they used fire to roast, sear, boil, and grill food; they made sweet wines and vinegar; they processed hemp and silk, weaving them into cloth and silk; these were used to nourish the living, to bury the dead, and to serve ghosts and spirits and the Supreme Lord. All these practices followed from their original beginnings.

"Therefore, in sacrifices, the dark water is placed in the inner chamber; the sweet wine and the clarified wine are placed near the door; the reddish wine is placed in the hall; the clear wine is placed below the hall. The sacrificial victims are displayed, the tripods and meat stands are prepared, and the zithers, lutes, pipes, chimes, bells, and drums are arrayed. The prayers and blessings are composed, in order to welcome the descent of the high spirits and the ancestors. By these means, the relationship between ruler and minister is regulated, the relationship between father and son is deepened, the relationship between elder and younger brothers is harmonized, the relationship between superiors and subordinates is ordered, and husband and wife each have their proper place. This is called 'receiving the blessing of Heaven.'

"The titles for the prayers are formulated; the dark water is used in sacrifice; the blood and fur of the victims are presented; raw flesh is placed on the meat stands; the cooked meats are presented together with the reed mats; coarse cloth covers the sacrificial vessels; washed silk garments are worn; the sweet wine and clarified wine are presented; roasted meat and roasted fish are presented; the ruler and his consort alternate in making offerings, in order to please the spirits and the ethereal souls of the ancestors. This is called 'He Mo' (uniting the living and the dead in spirit).

"Then they withdraw, and the half-cooked sacrificial offerings are seasoned and fully cooked; the limbs of dogs, pigs, oxen, and sheep are disjointed and placed in vessels such as fu, gui, bian, dou, and xing. The prayers use filial piety to announce to the spirits, and the blessings use parental kindness to announce to the living. This is called 'Da Xiang' (Great Auspiciousness). This is the great completion of ritual."

Confucius said: "Alas, how lamentable! I observe the ritual system of Zhou; it was ruined by Kings You and Li. Apart from Lu, where else could I go? The suburban sacrifice and the di sacrifice performed in Lu are not in accordance with ritual. The Way of the Duke of Zhou is probably in decline! The state of Qi performs the suburban sacrifice, sacrificing to Yu; the state of Song performs the suburban sacrifice, sacrificing to Xie. This is the duty of the Son of Heaven. Therefore, the Son of Heaven sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, while the feudal lords sacrifice to the altars of soil and grain.

"Prayers and blessings that no one dares to alter from their established norms and ancient forms—this is called 'Da Jia' (Great Blessing). When the words of the prayers and blessings are stored with the invocators, the superintendents of rites, the shamans, and the scribes, this is not in accordance with ritual; it is called 'You Guo' (an obscured state). Using the zhan and jia vessels, which are the vessels of the Son of Heaven, for the person representing the deceased ancestor is not in accordance with ritual; this is called 'Jian Jun' (a presumptuous ruler). When caps, ceremonial caps, armor, and leather goods are stored in private homes, this is not in accordance with ritual; this is called 'Xie Jun' (a ruler threatened by his subjects). When a high minister establishes a full set of offices in his household, does not borrow sacrificial vessels from others, and possesses a complete array of music, this is not in accordance with ritual; this is called 'Luan Guo' (a chaotic state).

"Therefore, those who serve in the public office are called 'ministers'; those who serve in the households of high ministers are called 'servants.' Those observing three years of mourning, and those newly married, are not assigned corvée labor for one year. Wearing mourning garments when entering the court, or mingling indiscriminately and sitting on an equal level with household servants—this is not in accordance with ritual; it is called 'the ruler and the minister sharing the same state.' Therefore, the Son of Heaven has lands to settle his descendants, the feudal lords have states to settle their descendants, and the high ministers have fiefs to settle their descendants; this is called 'the system.' Therefore, when the Son of Heaven travels to a feudal state, he must reside in the ancestral temple of that feudal lord. If he enters without observing the ritual prescriptions of status and title, this is called 'the Son of Heaven violating the laws and throwing the norms into chaos.' If a feudal lord enters the home of a minister for reasons other than inquiring about illness or offering condolences, this is called 'the ruler and minister engaging in frivolity.'"

"Therefore, ritual is the great handle by which the ruler operates. It is used to distinguish doubtful matters, to illuminate what is hidden and subtle, to serve ghosts and spirits with reverence, to examine and regulate institutions, to differentiate between Ren and Yi; it is used to govern affairs and to stabilize the ruler's position. Thus, if governance is not correct, the ruler's position becomes precarious; if the ruler's position becomes precarious, then high ministers rebel and petty officials usurp authority. When punishments are severe and customs corrupted, laws and decrees become inconsistent; when laws and decrees are inconsistent, ritual order is lost; when ritual order is lost, scholars are unwilling to exert their efforts; when punishments are severe and customs corrupted, the people will not submit. This is called a 'blemished state.'

"Therefore, governance is the means by which the ruler secures his person. Thus governance must take its origin from Heaven, emulate it, and then issue decrees downward. When decrees descend from the altars of soil and grain, it is called emulating the Earth; when they descend from the ancestral temple, it is called Ren and Yi; when they descend from the mountains and rivers, it is called initiating enterprises; when they descend from the Five Sacrifices, it is called establishing institutions. This is the method by which the sage secures himself.

"Therefore, the sage participates in and matches Heaven and Earth, and harmonizes with ghosts and spirits, in order to govern affairs. What he preserves and sets in place is the order of ritual; what he delights in and cherishes is the governance of the people. Thus Heaven generates the four seasons; Earth generates wealth and resources; humans are born by their fathers and taught by their teachers. These four—Heaven, Earth, father, and teacher—the ruler uses correctly, and therefore the ruler stands in a position free from error.

"Therefore, the ruler is one whom others emulate, not one who emulates others; the ruler is one whom others support, not one who supports others; the ruler is one whom others serve, not one who serves others. Thus, if the ruler emulates others, he will have faults; if he supports others, his strength will be insufficient; if he serves others, he will lose his position. Therefore the people emulate the ruler to govern themselves, support the ruler to secure themselves, and serve the ruler to distinguish themselves. Thus ritual penetrates and status is fixed, and therefore everyone is willing to die for the ruler rather than to live in dishonor.

"Therefore, in employing human wisdom, one must remove its deceit; in employing human courage, one must remove its violence; in employing human Ren, one must remove its greed.

"Thus, when the state suffers calamity, the ruler dying for the altars of soil and grain is called Yi; a high minister dying for his ancestral temple is called a 'crisis' (an extraordinary event).

"Therefore, the sage is able to make all under Heaven one family, and to make the Central States one person. This is not achieved by subjective imagination; it must be done by understanding human feelings, penetrating the Dao of Yi, clarifying benefit and harm, and thoroughly examining calamities and disasters. Only then can it be accomplished.

"What are human feelings? Joy, anger, sorrow, fear, love, dislike, and desire—these seven are possessed without learning. What is human Yi? The father being kind, the son being filial, the elder brother being good, the younger brother being respectful, the husband being righteous, the wife being obedient, the elder being benevolent, the younger being deferential, the ruler being generous, the minister being loyal—these ten are called human Yi. Practicing trustworthiness and cultivating harmony are called human benefit. Mutual striving and mutual killing are called human calamity. Therefore, when the sage wishes to regulate the seven human feelings, cultivate the ten Yi, practice trustworthiness, cultivate harmony, honor yielding and deference, and eliminate strife, what can he use besides ritual? Food and drink and the relations between men and women are where great human desires lie; death and poverty and hardship are where great human dislikes lie. Thus desire and dislike are the main threads of the human mind. Humans conceal their thoughts, which cannot be fathomed; good and evil are hidden within the heart and do not appear on the countenance. To fully investigate them, what method can be used besides ritual?

"Therefore, humans are the virtue of Heaven and Earth, the intermingling of Yin and Yang, the convergence of ghosts and spirits, and the essence of the Five Elements.

"Thus Heaven holds the Yang force and manifests the sun, moon, and stars; Earth holds the Yin force and manifests openings through mountains and rivers. The Five Elements are distributed among the four seasons, and only after Yin and Yang harmonize does the moon appear. Therefore, for fifteen days the moon is full, and for fifteen days it wanes. The operation of the Five Elements alternates and exhausts each other. The Five Elements, the four seasons, and the twelve months revolve in a cycle, each serving as the foundation for the others. The five notes, the six pitch-pipes, and the twelve standard pipes revolve in a cycle, each serving as the Gong note for the others. The five flavors, the six harmonies, and the twelve types of food revolve in a cycle, each serving as the foundation for the others. The five colors, the six patterns, and the twelve garments revolve in a cycle, each serving as the substance for the others.

"Therefore, humans are the heart of Heaven and Earth, the beginning of the Five Elements, beings who can taste flavors, distinguish sounds, and wear colors in order to live. Thus, when a sage arises, he must take Heaven and Earth as his foundation, Yin and Yang as his starting point, the four seasons as his handle, the sun, moon, and stars as his guiding principles, the moon as his measure, ghosts and spirits as his attendants, the Five Elements as his material, ritual and Yi as his tools, human feelings as his field, and the Four Spiritual Beasts as his domestic animals. Taking Heaven and Earth as his foundation, therefore the myriad things can be grasped. Taking Yin and Yang as his starting point, therefore human feelings can be seen. Taking the four seasons as his handle, therefore affairs can be encouraged. Taking the sun, moon, and stars as his guiding principles, therefore tasks can be arranged. Taking the moon as his measure, therefore achievements have limits. Taking ghosts and spirits as his attendants, therefore duties have guardians. Taking the Five Elements as his material, therefore affairs can be repeated. Taking ritual and Yi as his tools, therefore affairs are carried out with effect. Taking human feelings as his field, therefore humans take this as their mystery. Taking the Four Spiritual Beasts as his domestic animals, therefore food and drink have their source. What are the Four Spiritual Beasts? The Qilin, the Phoenix, the Tortoise, and the Dragon are called the Four Spiritual Beasts. Therefore, when the dragon becomes a domestic animal, fish do not flee in alarm. When the phoenix becomes a domestic animal, birds do not fly away in alarm. When the Qilin becomes a domestic animal, beasts do not run away in alarm. When the tortoise becomes a domestic animal, human feelings do not lose their standard.

"Therefore, the former kings held the yarrow stalks and tortoise shells, arranged sacrifices, buried silk offerings, recited prayers and blessings, and established institutions. Thus the state had ritual, officials had governance, affairs had duties, and ritual had order.

"Therefore, the former kings worried that ritual might not penetrate to the common people below.

"Thus, sacrificing to the Supreme Deity in the suburbs was used to establish the position of Heaven; sacrificing to the god of the soil in the capital was used to display the benefits of Earth; establishing the ancestral temple was used as the root of Ren; sacrificing to mountains and rivers was used to welcome and send off ghosts and spirits; performing the Five Sacrifices was used as the root of affairs. Therefore, the invocator and the supplicant were in the ancestral temple; the three dukes were at court; the three elders were in the school. Before the ruler was the shaman; behind him was the recorder; diviners, blind musicians, and cup-bearers were all at his left and right. The ruler's mind was without action, in order to uphold the utmost correct Dao.

"Therefore, when ritual is practiced in the suburbs, the hundred spirits each receive their office; when ritual is practiced at the altar of the soil, the hundred things are fully obtained; when ritual is practiced in the ancestral temple, filial piety and kindness are put into practice; when ritual is practiced in the Five Sacrifices, standards and rules are rectified. Therefore, from the suburban sacrifice, the soil sacrifice, the ancestral temple, mountains and rivers, and the Five Sacrifices, this is where Yi is cultivated and ritual is stored.

"Therefore, ritual must take its origin from the Great One, dividing to become Heaven and Earth, revolving to become Yin and Yang, changing to become the four seasons, and arranging to become ghosts and spirits. Its descent is called decree, and it emulates Heaven.

"Ritual must take its origin from Heaven, move and reach Earth, be arranged and extend to affairs, change in accord with the seasons, and harmonize with boundaries and limits. When it resides in humans, it is called nurturing; when it is put into practice, it relies on resources, strength, and yielding: food and drink, capping ceremonies, marriage ceremonies, mourning ceremonies, sacrifice ceremonies, archery ceremonies, chariot-driving ceremonies, court audiences, and diplomatic missions.

"Therefore, ritual and Yi are the great root of humans. They are used to practice trustworthiness and cultivate harmony, thereby consolidating the joining of human skin and flesh and the connection of sinews and bones. They are the great root used to nourish the living, send off the dead, and serve ghosts and spirits. They are the great channel used to penetrate the Dao of Heaven and accord with human feelings.

"Therefore, only the sage knows that ritual cannot be abolished. Thus those who ruin the state, destroy the family, and lose their lives must have first abandoned ritual. Therefore, ritual for humans is like the fermenting agent for brewing wine. When the gentleman uses it, it becomes rich; when the petty person uses it, it becomes thin.

Therefore, the sage kings cultivated the framework of righteousness and the order of ritual to manage human emotions. Thus, human emotions are the field of the sage kings. They cultivated ritual to plow it, set forth righteousness to sow it, lectured and studied to weed it, took Ren (benevolence) as the root to gather it, and spread music to settle it. Therefore, ritual is the substance of righteousness. When harmonized with righteousness and aligned, then even if ritual was not established by former kings, it can be created according to righteousness. Righteousness is the boundary of affairs and the measure of Ren. When harmonized with affairs and devoted to Ren, those who attain it become strong. Ren is the foundation of righteousness and the embodiment of compliance; those who attain it become noble. Therefore, governing a state without ritual is like plowing without a plow. Practicing ritual without originating from righteousness is like plowing without sowing. Practicing righteousness without studying is like sowing without weeding. Studying but not uniting with Ren is like weeding without harvesting. Uniting with Ren but not settling with music is like harvesting without eating. Settling with music but not penetrating to compliance is like eating without becoming robust. When the four limbs are upright and the skin is full, this is the robustness of a person. When father and son are devoted, elder and younger brothers are harmonious, and husband and wife are in accord, this is the robustness of a family. When great ministers abide by the law, minor ministers are incorrupt, official positions are orderly, and rulers and ministers correct each other, this is the robustness of a state. When the Son of Heaven takes virtue as his chariot and music as his driver, the feudal lords interact with ritual, the great ministers order with law, the officers examine with integrity, and the common people guard each other with harmony, this is the robustness of the world. This is called Great Compliance. Great Compliance is the constant way for nourishing the living, sending off the dead, and serving ghosts and spirits. Therefore, though affairs accumulate greatly, they do not stagnate; though they proceed simultaneously, they are not chaotic; though they are carried out minutely, they are not erroneous. Profound yet penetrable, abundant yet with intervals, connected yet not entangled, moving yet not obstructive—this is the ultimate of compliance. Therefore, only after understanding compliance can one hold firm in times of crisis.

Thus, the distinctions of ritual are neither increased nor decreased; they are used to hold human emotions and unite with times of crisis. Therefore, the sage kings followed nature, not making those who dwell in mountains move to watersides, nor making those who dwell on islets move to plains, and they caused them not to be distressed. They used water, fire, metal, wood, and food and drink always according to the seasons. They united men and women and conferred ranks and titles always according to age and virtue. They employed the people always according to the season. Thus, there were no disasters of flood, drought, or insect pests, and the people suffered no calamities of famine, evil, or plague. Therefore, Heaven did not begrudge its Way, Earth did not begrudge its treasures, and humans did not begrudge their emotions. Thus, Heaven sent down sweet dew, Earth brought forth sweet springs, mountains produced vessels and chariots, the Yellow River manifested the dragon-horse diagram, phoenixes and unicorns dwelt in the marshes of the outskirts, and tortoises and dragons were in the palace ponds; the eggs and fetuses of other birds and beasts could be peered at from above. This had no other reason: it was because the former kings were able to cultivate ritual to penetrate righteousness, embody integrity to penetrate compliance—this is the substance of compliance.