Gongsun Chou, Part I

Gongsun Chou asked, "Master, if you were in charge of the government in Qi, could the achievements of Guan Zhong and Yanzi be realized again?"

Mencius said, "You are indeed a man of Qi, knowing only Guan Zhong and Yanzi. Someone once asked Zeng Xi, 'Who is more worthy, you or Zilu?' Zeng Xi looked uneasy and said, 'He is the one my father held in awe (referring to Zilu).' The man then asked, 'Then who is more worthy, you or Guan Zhong?' Zeng Xi looked displeased and said, 'How can you compare me with Guan Zhong? Guan Zhong had his ruler's trust so exclusively, held state power so long, yet his achievements were so petty. How can you compare me with such a man!'" Mencius continued, "Guan Zhong is someone even Zeng Xi would not emulate. Do you think I wish to learn from him?"

Gongsun Chou said, "Guan Zhong assisted his ruler to achieve hegemony; Yanzi assisted his ruler to make his name renowned. Are Guan Zhong and Yanzi not worth emulating?"

Mencius said, "With Qi, achieving true kingship over all under Heaven is as easy as turning over one's hand."

Gongsun Chou said, "If so, then your disciple's doubt is even deeper. Moreover, with the virtue of King Wen, who lived nearly a hundred years before passing away, his teachings had not yet spread throughout all under Heaven. King Wu and the Duke of Zhou carried on his work, and only then greatly promoted the kingly way. Now you say achieving kingship is so easy—then is King Wen not worth following?"

Mencius said, "How can King Wen be compared? From Tang of Shang to Wu Ding, there were six or seven sage and worthy rulers. All under Heaven had been attached to Yin for a long time; when it lasts long, it is hard to change. Wu Ding brought the feudal lords to court and possessed all under Heaven as easily as turning something in his palm. Zhou of Yin was not far from Wu Ding's time; the old families, remaining customs, lingering traditions, and good governance still survived. Moreover, there were Wei Zi, Wei Zhong, Prince Bi Gan, Ji Zi, and Jiao Ge—all worthy men—who assisted him together, so it took a long time before he lost all under Heaven. At that time, not a foot of land was not Zhou's possession, not a single person was not Zhou's subject. Yet King Wen rose from a territory of a hundred li square, so it was difficult. There is a common saying in Qi: 'Even with wisdom, it is better to seize the moment; even with a hoe, it is better to wait for the season.' Now the time is easy. When Xia, Yin, and Zhou flourished, their territories did not exceed a thousand li, yet Qi already has such a vast territory. The sounds of cocks crowing and dogs barking can be heard from one another, reaching to the four borders, yet Qi already has so many people. The land need not be opened further, the people need not be gathered more—by practicing benevolent governance and achieving kingship, no one can stop it. Moreover, the one who would achieve kingship has not appeared for a longer time than ever before; the people are afflicted by oppressive governance more severely than ever before. The hungry find it easy to get food; the thirsty find it easy to get drink. Confucius said, 'The spread of virtuous governance is faster than the relay of government orders.' In the present time, if a state with ten thousand war chariots practices benevolent governance, the joy of the people is like that of someone hanging upside down being rescued. Thus, doing half the work of the ancients will surely yield double the results—only in such times is this possible."

Gongsun Chou asked, "Master, if you were to become a high minister in Qi and could implement your own doctrines, it would not be surprising if you achieved hegemony or kingship. If so, would your mind be stirred?"

Mencius said, "No. Since I was forty, my mind has not been stirred."

Gongsun Chou said, "If so, then Master is far superior to Meng Ben."

Mencius said, "This is not difficult. Gaozi was able to have his mind unstirred even earlier than I."

Gongsun Chou said, "Is there a method for keeping the mind unstirred?"

Mencius said, "Yes. Bei Gongyou cultivated his courage: when his skin was pierced, he did not flinch; when his eyes were stabbed, he did not dodge. He felt the slightest humiliation as if he were being whipped in the marketplace. He did not tolerate insults from commoners, nor from great rulers. He regarded stabbing a great ruler as no different from stabbing a commoner. He did not fear the feudal lords. When he heard harsh words, he always retorted. Meng Shishe cultivated his courage, saying, 'I regard what cannot be overcome as if it could be overcome. To estimate the enemy before advancing, to consider victory or defeat before engaging, is to fear the three armies. How can I be sure of victory? I only aim to be without fear.' Meng Shishe resembled Zengzi, and Bei Gongyou resembled Zixia. Of these two men's courage, I do not know which was more worthy, but Meng Shishe grasped the essential. Formerly, Zengzi said to Zixiang, 'Do you delight in courage? I once heard from the Master Confucius about great courage: If I examine myself and find I am not in the right, even if I face a commoner, would I not be afraid? If I examine myself and find I am in the right, even if I face a million men, I will go forward.' Meng Shishe's preservation of courage was inferior to that of Zengzi, who grasped the essential."

Gongsun Chou said, "May I ask about the unstirred mind of the Master and that of Gaozi—could you explain it to me?"

Mencius said, "Gaozi said, 'If you cannot find it in words, do not seek it in your mind; if you cannot find it in your mind, do not seek it in your vital energy.' To say that if you cannot find it in your mind, do not seek it in your vital energy is acceptable. But to say that if you cannot find it in words, do not seek it in your mind is not acceptable. For the will is the commander of the vital energy; the vital energy fills the body. The will is of utmost importance, and the vital energy is secondary. Therefore it is said: 'Firmly hold to your will, and do not misuse your vital energy.'"

Gongsun Chou said, "Since you say 'The will is of utmost importance, and the vital energy is secondary,' and also say 'Firmly hold to your will, and do not misuse your vital energy,' why is that?"

Mencius said, "When the will is focused, it moves the vital energy; when the vital energy is focused, it also moves the will. For example, in falling or running, this is the vital energy moving, but in turn it also stirs the mind."

Gongsun Chou asked, "May I ask what the Master excels at?"

Mencius said, "I am good at analyzing others' words, and I am good at nourishing my vast, flowing vital energy."

Gongsun Chou asked, "May I ask what this vast, flowing vital energy is?"

Mencius said, "It is difficult to describe. This vital energy is supremely vast and supremely strong. If one nourishes it with uprightness and does not harm it, it will fill all between Heaven and Earth. This vital energy must be matched with righteousness and the Way; without these, it withers. It is born of accumulated righteousness, not something gained by occasional acts of righteousness. When one's conduct fails to satisfy the mind, it withers. Therefore I say that Gaozi never understood righteousness, because he regarded it as external. You must work at it, but do not have specific expectations. Do not forget it in your mind, but do not help it grow. Do not be like the man of Song. There was a man of Song who worried that his seedlings were not growing and pulled them up. Wearily returning home, he said to his family, 'Today I am exhausted! I helped the seedlings grow!' His son ran to look, and the seedlings were withered. Few in all under Heaven do not help their seedlings grow. Those who think it useless and abandon it are those who do not weed their seedlings. Those who help it grow are those who pull up the seedlings—not only is it unhelpful, but it harms them."

Gongsun Chou asked, "What is meant by analyzing words?"

Mencius said, "From one-sided words, I know where they are obscured; from excessive words, I know where they are trapped; from deviant words, I know where they have departed from the Way; from evasive words, I know where they are at a loss. These words, when born in the mind, harm governance; when manifested in governance, harm practical affairs. If a sage were to appear again, he would surely agree with my words."

Gongsun Chou said, "Zai Wo and Zigong were good at eloquence; Ran Niu, Min Zi, and Yan Yuan were good at speaking about virtue. Confucius combined all these excellences, yet he said, 'I am not skilled in rhetoric.' So is the Master already a sage?"

Mencius said, "Oh! What words are these! Formerly, Zigong asked Confucius, 'Master, are you already a sage?' Confucius said, 'A sage—I cannot achieve that. I only learn without tiring and teach without growing weary.' Zigong said, 'Learning without tiring is wisdom; teaching without growing weary is benevolence. Being both benevolent and wise, Master, you are already a sage.' Even Confucius did not claim to be a sage—what words are these from you?"

Gongsun Chou said, "I once heard that Zixia, Ziyou, and Zizhang each possessed a part of the sage; while Ran Niu, Minzi, and Yan Yuan possessed the entirety of the sage but on a smaller scale. May I ask, sir, which kind do you belong to?"

Mencius said, "Let us set this aside for now."

Gongsun Chou said, "What about Boyi and Yiyin?"

Mencius said, "Their ways of conducting themselves differed. He who would serve only the ruler of his ideal and command only the people of his ideal, who would take office when the world was at peace and retire when the world was in chaos—that was Boyi. He who would serve any ruler and command any people, who would take office whether the world was at peace or in chaos—that was Yiyin. He who would take office when it was proper to take office, retire when it was proper to retire, prolong his stay when it was proper to prolong it, and hasten his departure when it was proper to hasten it—that was Confucius. They were all sages of antiquity. I have not been able to attain to what they were. As for my wish, it is to learn from Confucius."

Gongsun Chou asked, "Were Boyi and Yiyin on a par with Confucius?"

Mencius said, "No. Since there were living creatures, there has never been another Confucius."

Gongsun Chou said, "Then did they have anything in common?"

Mencius said, "Yes. If they had obtained a territory of a hundred square li and been made its rulers, they could all have caused the feudal lords to come to court and possess the empire. If they had to commit one unrighteous deed or kill one innocent person to gain the empire, none of them would do it. That is what they had in common."

Gongsun Chou said, "May I ask what their differences were?"

Mencius said, "Zai Wo, Zigong, and You Ruo—their wisdom was sufficient to understand the sage. Even if they were inferior, they would not be partial to those they favored. Zai Wo said, 'As I see it, our Master is far more worthy than Yao or Shun.' Zigong said, 'Seeing a state's ritual, one knows its governance; hearing a state's music, one knows its virtue. From a hundred generations hence, evaluating the rulers of a hundred generations past, no one can deviate from the Master's way. Since there were living creatures, there has been no one like our Master.' You Ruo said, 'Is it only among humans that this is so? The unicorn among beasts, the phoenix among birds, Mount Tai among mounds, rivers and seas among puddles—these are of the same kind. The sage among the people is also of the same kind. But the sage far surpasses his kind and stands high above the multitude. Since there were living creatures, there has been no one greater than Confucius.'"

Mencius said, "One who relies on force while pretending to benevolence can become a hegemon, and to become a hegemon one must have a large state. One who relies on virtue while practicing benevolence can become a true king, and to become a true king one need not wait for a large state—Tang did so with a territory of seventy square li, and King Wen with a territory of a hundred square li. When people submit through force, it is not heartfelt submission, but merely because their strength is insufficient. When people submit through virtue, it is heartfelt joy and genuine submission, just as the seventy-some disciples submitted to Confucius. The Book of Odes says, 'From west to east, from south to north, none were unwilling to submit.' This is what is meant."

Mencius said, "Practicing benevolent governance brings glory; not practicing benevolent governance brings disgrace. Now people hate disgrace yet dwell in un-benevolence—this is like hating dampness yet living in low-lying places. If one truly hates disgrace, nothing is better than honoring virtue and respecting the worthy. Let the virtuous hold office and the capable fill positions. When the state is at peace, take this time to clarify governmental teachings and penal laws, and even a great state will surely stand in awe of it. The Book of Odes says, 'Before the sky darkens with rain, peel the bark from the mulberry roots, and bind the doors and windows securely. Now these people—who dares to insult me?' Confucius said, 'The one who made this poem surely understood the Way! If one can govern his own state well, who would dare to insult him?' Now when the state is at peace, yet one takes this time to indulge in pleasure and idleness—this is inviting disaster. Misfortune and fortune are never not self-sought. The Book of Odes says, 'Long be your harmony with Heaven's decree, and seek for yourself much blessing.' The Tai Jia says, 'Calamities sent by Heaven can still be avoided; calamities one brings upon oneself cannot be lived through.' This is what is meant."

Mencius said, "Honor the worthy and employ the capable, so that outstanding talents hold office—then all the scholars of the world will be delighted and wish to serve in his court. In the market, provide space for goods without taxing them, and regulate according to law without levying on the stalls—then all the merchants of the world will be delighted and wish to store their goods in his market. At the passes, inspect but do not tax—then all the travelers of the world will be delighted and wish to pass through his roads. For the farmers, implement the system of mutual aid without collecting grain taxes—then all the farmers of the world will be delighted and wish to till his fields. In the dwellings, levy neither corvée nor neighborhood tax—then all the people of the world will be delighted and wish to be his subjects. If one can truly practice these five things, then the people of neighboring states will look up to him as to a father and mother. Leading sons to attack their fathers and mothers—since there were living creatures, no one has ever succeeded. In this way, one will be invincible in the world. The one who is invincible in the world is Heaven's envoy. That such a one cannot unify the world has never happened."

Mencius said, "Every person has a heart that cannot bear to see the suffering of others. The former kings had this heart of unendurance, and thus they had the governance of unendurance. With a heart of unendurance to practice the governance of unendurance, governing the world is like turning something in the palm of the hand. The reason I say everyone has this heart of unendurance is this: if someone suddenly sees a child about to fall into a well, they will all feel alarm and compassion—not to gain favor with the child's parents, not to seek praise from neighbors and friends, and not because they dislike the child's cries. From this we see that without compassion, one is not human. Without shame, one is not human. Without deference, one is not human. Without the sense of right and wrong, one is not human. Compassion is the sprout of benevolence. Shame is the sprout of righteousness. Deference is the sprout of ritual propriety. The sense of right and wrong is the sprout of wisdom. Humans have these four sprouts just as they have four limbs. To have these four sprouts yet say one cannot practice them is to mutilate oneself. To say one's ruler cannot practice them is to mutilate one's ruler. All who have these four sprouts within themselves know to expand and fill them out, like a fire beginning to burn, like a spring beginning to flow. If one can expand them, it is enough to settle the world. If one cannot expand them, it is not even enough to serve one's parents."

Mencius said, "Is the arrow-maker less benevolent than the armor-maker? The arrow-maker only fears that he cannot harm people; the armor-maker only fears that he may harm people. The same is true of the shaman and the coffin-maker. Thus, in choosing one's profession, one must be careful. Confucius said, 'To dwell in benevolence is beautiful. If one chooses a dwelling without choosing benevolence, how can he be considered wise?' Benevolence is Heaven's most noble title and humanity's peaceful abode. No one prevents you from practicing benevolence, yet you do not—this is unwise. To be without benevolence, without wisdom, without ritual propriety, without righteousness—this is to be a mere servant. To be a servant yet be ashamed of being a servant—this is like the bow-maker being ashamed of making bows, or the arrow-maker being ashamed of making arrows. If one is truly ashamed, nothing is better than practicing benevolence. The benevolent person is like the archer: the archer first straightens his own posture and then releases the arrow. If he shoots and does not hit, he does not blame the one who surpasses him, but simply turns inward and seeks the cause in himself."

Mencius said, "Zilu was delighted when others told him of his faults. Yu bowed when he heard a good word. Great Shun was even more remarkable: he was good at sharing goodness with others, casting aside his own shortcomings and learning from others' strengths, and joyfully drawing on others' good points to practice goodness. From his time as a farmer, potter, and fisherman, all the way until he became the Son of Heaven, there was no point where he did not draw on others' good points. Drawing on others' good points to practice goodness is to share goodness with others. Thus, the highest virtue of the gentleman is to share goodness with others."

Mencius said, "Bo Yi would not serve a ruler he did not consider worthy, nor would he befriend a friend he did not consider worthy. He would not take office in the court of an evil ruler, nor would he speak with an evil person. To take office in the court of an evil ruler or to speak with an evil person was to him like sitting in mud or charcoal while wearing his court robes and cap. He extended this aversion to evil to such an extent that if he happened to be standing with a villager whose cap was not properly adjusted, he would leave him with an air of disdain, as if he might be defiled. Therefore, even if a feudal lord came with earnest words to invite him, he would not accept. He would not accept because he deemed it beneath him to approach them. Liu Xiahui, on the other hand, was not ashamed to serve a corrupt ruler, nor did he consider a minor office too lowly. When entering office, he did not conceal his abilities but always acted according to his principles. When abandoned, he felt no resentment; when in straitened circumstances, he felt no distress. Thus he said, 'You are you, and I am I. Even if you stand naked beside me, how can you defile me?' Therefore, he could calmly associate with others without losing his integrity, and when others tried to keep him, he would stay. He stayed when others tried to keep him because he deemed it beneath him to leave." Mencius said, "Bo Yi was too narrow-minded, and Liu Xiahui was lacking in respectfulness. A gentleman does not practice narrow-mindedness or lack of respectfulness."