Refuting Extravagance

Mozi said: In ancient times, before the people knew how to build houses, they lived by relying on hills and dwelling in caves. The dampness of the earth harmed the human body, so the sage kings began to construct houses. The principle for building houses was this: the height must be sufficient to avoid moisture, the surrounding walls must be sufficient to ward off wind and cold, the roof must be sufficient to withstand frost, snow, rain, and dew, and the height of the walls must be sufficient to maintain the distinction between men and women in matters of propriety. This was considered sufficient. Anything that wasted resources and labor without bringing greater benefit was not undertaken. Therefore, the sage kings built houses only to facilitate living, not for spectacle or pleasure. In making clothes, belts, and shoes, they aimed only to benefit the body, not for eccentric attire. Thus, the sage kings were frugal themselves and taught the people, so the people of the world could be well governed, and resources and expenditures could be sufficient.

Nowadays, rulers build houses differently from this. They invariably impose heavy taxes and levies on the people, forcibly seizing the money meant for their food and clothing, to construct palaces, towers, and terraces, pursuing winding landscapes and ornate carvings in blue and yellow. When houses are built in this way, all the ministers and attendants imitate them. As a result, their resources are insufficient to cope with years of famine and disaster, to aid orphans and widows, and thus the state becomes impoverished and the people difficult to govern. If a ruler truly desires peace in the world and abhors chaos, then in building houses, he cannot but be frugal.

In ancient times, before the people knew how to make clothes, they wore animal skins and tied them with grass ropes. In winter, these were not lightweight but were warm; in summer, they were not lightweight but were cool. The sage kings considered this unsuitable for human needs, so they taught women to process silk and hemp, and to weave cloth and silk, to make clothes for the people. The principle for making clothes was this: in winter, inner garments made of silk floss were sufficient for lightness and warmth; in summer, inner garments made of kudzu cloth were sufficient for lightness and coolness. This was considered sufficient. Therefore, the sage kings made clothes that suited the body and comforted the skin; that was enough. They did not seek to delight the ears and eyes or to be admired by ignorant people. In those times, solid carriages and fine horses were not valued, and carved and painted decorations were not cherished. Why was this? Because the principles they followed led them to this state. Thus, the resources for the people's food and clothing were sufficient in every household to cope with droughts and floods and famines. Why was this? Because they understood the way of self-sustenance and were not tempted by external things. Therefore, their people were frugal and easy to govern, and their rulers were frugal in their expenditures and easy to satisfy. The granaries were full, sufficient to deal with unexpected events; weapons were not damaged, and soldiers and people were not overworked, sufficient to punish those who did not submit. Thus, the enterprise of hegemonic kingship could be carried out throughout the world.

Nowadays, rulers make clothes differently from this. They already have what is lightweight and warm in winter, and lightweight and cool in summer. Yet they invariably impose heavy taxes and levies on the people, forcibly seizing the money meant for their food and clothing, to make embroidered, painted, ornate, and soft garments. They cast gold to make hooks, use pearls and jade for ornaments, have women workers do painting, and male workers do carving and engraving, all for garments worn on the body. This does not add to the function of warmth; it merely wastes resources and labor, all going to useless purposes. From this perspective, they make clothes not for the body, but solely for aesthetic appearance. Therefore, their people become licentious and perverse, difficult to govern, and their rulers become extravagant, difficult to remonstrate with. Using an extravagant ruler to govern a people fond of licentiousness, hoping that the state will not fall into chaos, is impossible. If a ruler truly desires peace in the world and abhors chaos, then in making clothes, he cannot but be frugal.

In ancient times, before the people knew how to prepare food and drink, they ate raw plants and lived separately. Therefore, the sage kings taught men to plow fields and plant fruit trees, to provide food for the people. In preparing food, they aimed only to increase strength, fill emptiness, strengthen the body, and suit the stomach. That was enough. Thus, they were frugal in their expenditures, simple in their self-sustenance, the people were prosperous, and the state was stable. Now, it is not like this. They impose heavy taxes and levies on the people to make fine delicacies, steaming and roasting fish and turtles. In a great state, the ruler has up to a hundred dishes arrayed before him; in a small state, up to several tens. The array before him is a square zhang in size, his eyes cannot see them all, his hands cannot take them all, and his mouth cannot taste them all. In winter, the dishes freeze; in summer, the food spoils and turns sour. When the ruler prepares food and drink in this way, all his ministers and attendants imitate him. Therefore, the wealthy and noble become extravagant, while orphans and widows suffer from hunger and cold. Even if one wishes to avoid disaster, it is impossible. If a ruler truly desires peace in the world and abhors chaos, then in preparing food and drink, he cannot but be frugal.

In ancient times, before the people knew how to make boats and carriages, heavy goods could not be transported, and distant places could not be reached. Therefore, the sage kings made boats and carriages to facilitate the affairs of the people. In making boats and carriages, they were solid, sturdy, light, and convenient, capable of carrying heavy loads and reaching distant places. They used few resources but gained great benefit, so the people liked them and found them advantageous. Thus, laws were implemented without urgent enforcement, the people were not overworked, and the ruler's expenditures were sufficient, so the people submitted to him. Nowadays, rulers make boats and carriages differently from this. They already have solid, sturdy, light, and convenient ones, yet they invariably impose heavy taxes and levies on the people to adorn boats and carriages, decorating carriages with paintings and boats with carvings. Women abandon their weaving to work on painting, so the people suffer from cold; men leave their plowing to work on carving, so the people suffer from hunger. When the ruler makes boats and carriages in this way, all his ministers and attendants imitate him. Therefore, the people suffer from hunger and cold, and so turn to evil deeds. When evil deeds are many, punishments become severe; when punishments are severe, the state falls into chaos. If a ruler truly desires peace in the world and abhors chaos, then in making boats and carriages, he cannot but be frugal.

Everything that exists between heaven and earth, contained within the four seas, partakes of the nature of heaven and earth and the harmony of yin and yang. Nothing is lacking, and even the most sage cannot change this. How do we know this is so? The sages have transmitted teachings: heaven and earth are spoken of as above and below; the four seasons are spoken of as yin and yang; human feelings are spoken of as male and female; birds and beasts are spoken of as male and female. This is indeed the nature of heaven and earth. Even if there were former kings, they could not alter this. Even the most sage of ancient times necessarily kept wives and concubines without harming their conduct, so the people had no resentment. Within the palace, there were no confined women, so there were no widowers under heaven. Since the inner palace had no confined women and outside there were no widowers, the people of the world were numerous. Nowadays, rulers keep wives and concubines differently. In a great state, confined women number up to a thousand; in a small state, up to a hundred. Therefore, many men under heaven live alone without wives, and many women are confined without husbands. Men and women miss the proper time for marriage, so the population decreases. If a ruler truly desires a large population and abhors scarcity, then in keeping wives and concubines, he cannot but be frugal.

These five matters are where the sage is frugal and where the petty man is indulgent. Frugality leads to prosperity; indulgence leads to ruin. These five matters cannot but be regulated. When the relationship between husband and wife is regulated, heaven and earth are in harmony; when wind and rain are regulated, the five grains ripen; when clothing is regulated, the skin is comfortable.