Book of Music, Second
The Grand Historian says: Whenever I read the “Canon of Yu,” and see the mutual admonitions between ruler and ministers, how they said that only through constant vigilance could peace be maintained, and that if a minister was not good, all affairs would be ruined, I never fail to shed tears. When King Cheng of Zhou composed the “Hymns,” he examined his own faults to serve as a warning, and grieved over the calamities that had befallen his family—was this not a case of trembling with fear, being cautious in preserving what was achieved, and ensuring a good beginning and a good end? Does a gentleman cultivate virtue only in times of difficulty, and discard propriety and righteousness when content? Can one, in times of ease, think of the beginning, and in times of peace, think of the start, bathe in grace and sing of toil and hardship—who but a man of great virtue could do this? The ancient texts say: “When order is established and achievements completed, then ritual and music can flourish.” As the way of man becomes deeper in the world, his virtue becomes more complete, and the music he delights in becomes increasingly different. If fullness is not reduced, it overflows; if substance is not controlled, it topples. All making of music is meant to regulate joy. The gentleman takes yielding as ritual and reduction as music; such is the nature of music. Considering that the various states and regions differ, and that human customs and habits are not the same, he broadly gathers local practices, harmonizes the tones, to make up for deficiencies, transform customs, and assist in the implementation of governance. The Son of Heaven personally observes in the Bright Hall, and the myriad people all wash away filth and evil, ponder fullness, to cultivate their own natures. Therefore, it is said: when the music of the “Odes” and “Hymns” is properly ordered, the people become upright; when the sounds of vigor and excitement arise, the scholars become inspired; when the tunes of Zheng and Wei are performed, men’s hearts become licentious. When music is harmonized and balanced, even birds and beasts can be moved, let alone humans who harbor the Five Constant Virtues and contain likes and dislikes? Is this not the natural tendency?
When the way of governance is lacking, the music of Zheng arises. Feudal lords and hereditary rulers, renowned in neighboring provinces, vie with each other to promote the music of Zheng. Since Zhongni could not remain in Lu together with the entertainers of Qi, and though he retired to regulate music to exhort the world, writing five stanzas to satirize current affairs, he still could not change this trend. It gradually declined into the age of the Six States, where people indulged in pleasure and dissipated behavior, never turning back, ultimately leading to the loss of their lives and the destruction of their clans, with their states annexed by Qin.
The Second Emperor of Qin even more made the music of Zheng his entertainment. Chancellor Li Si admonished: “To abandon the ‘Odes’ and ‘Documents’ and pursue sounds and colors with all one’s might—this is what Zu Yi feared; to slight the accumulation of small faults and give free rein to one’s desires in all-night revelry—this is the reason for the downfall of King Zhou.” Zhao Gao said: “The music of the Five Emperors and Three Kings each had different names, indicating that they did not follow one another. From the court to the common people, they were able to use music to exchange joy and harmonize feelings; without such harmony, there could be no communication, and grace could not flow. This is also the teaching of each era, music made according to the times—why must one have the Lu’er horse of Huashan to travel far?” The Second Emperor considered him correct.
When Gaozu passed through Pei, he composed the “Three Marquis Stanzas” and had young boys sing them. After Gaozu’s death, an order was issued that Pei could offer sacrifices with song and dance in the ancestral temple during the four seasons. Emperors Xiaohui, Xiaowen, and Xiaojing made no additions or changes; they merely practiced the old melodies in the Music Bureau.
By the time of the present Emperor’s accession, nineteen stanzas were composed, and the attendant Li Yannian was ordered to set them to music in sequence, appointing him Commandant of Harmony. Scholars versed in a single classic could not understand the lyrics on their own, so masters of the Five Classics were gathered to study and recite them together; only then could their meaning be grasped, and the lyrics were mostly elegant and dignified.
The Han court customarily offered sacrifices to the Grand Unity at the Sweet Spring Palace on the first xin day of the first month, performing a night sacrifice at dusk, lasting until dawn. Meteors often passed over the altar. Seventy young boys and girls were made to sing together. In spring, they sang “Green Yang”; in summer, “Vermilion Bright”; in autumn, “Western Bright”; in winter, “Dark Mystery.” These songs are widely circulated in the world, so they are not discussed further.
Once, a divine horse was obtained from the Wowā water, and again the “Song of the Grand Unity” was composed on this account. The lyrics said: “The Grand Unity presents, the heavenly horse descends, wet with red sweat, frothing with vermilion. Galloping leisurely, crossing ten thousand li, what can match it now, making the dragon its friend.” Later, on a campaign against Dayuan, a thousand-li horse was obtained, named Pushao, and again a song was made. The lyric poem said: “The heavenly horse comes, from the farthest west, crossing ten thousand li, returning to the virtuous lord. Receiving the spirit’s power, subduing foreign lands, traversing the shifting sands, the four barbarians submit.” The Commandant of the Interior Ji An admonished: “Whenever a ruler makes music, it is to honor the ancestors above and to transform the myriad people below. Now Your Majesty has obtained a horse, written a poem for it as a musical piece, and performed it in the ancestral temple—how can the former emperors and the people understand its tune?” The Emperor fell silent and was displeased. The Grand Chancellor Gongsun Hong said: “Ji An slanders the sacred institutions; his clan should be executed.”
In general, the arising of sound is produced by the human mind. The activity of the human mind is caused by external things. The mind is stirred by external things and moves, so it is manifested in sound; sounds respond to one another, so changes arise; changes form patterns, and these are called tones; arranging tones for performance and adding dance is called music. Music arises from tones, and its root lies in the mind’s response to external things. Therefore, when a grieving mind is stirred, the sound produced is urgent and faint; when a joyful mind is stirred, the sound is broad and slow; when a delighted mind is stirred, the sound is high and expansive; when an angry mind is stirred, the sound is coarse and severe; when a reverent mind is stirred, the sound is upright and pure; when a loving mind is stirred, the sound is harmonious and gentle. These six sounds are not inherent in human nature; they are stirred into activity by external things. Therefore, the former kings were cautious about what stirs the human mind. Thus, they used ritual to guide the will, music to harmonize the sound, governance to unify conduct, and punishments to prevent evil. Ritual, music, punishment, and governance—their ultimate purpose is the same: to unify the people’s minds and achieve the way of governance.
In general, tones arise from the human mind. Emotions stir within the mind, so they are manifested in sound; when sound forms patterns, it is called tone. Therefore, the tones of a peaceful age are tranquil and joyful; its governance is harmonious. The tones of a chaotic age are resentful and angry; its governance is perverse. The tones of a dying state are sorrowful and brooding; its people are distressed. The principle of sound is connected with governance. The gong tone represents the ruler; the shang tone represents the minister; the jue tone represents the people; the zhi tone represents affairs; the yu tone represents things. When these five tones are not disordered, there will be no corrupt or discordant sounds. When the gong tone is disordered, it is wild and scattered, indicating the ruler is arrogant; when the shang tone is disordered, it is slanted and unbalanced, indicating the minister is corrupt; when the jue tone is disordered, it is sorrowful, indicating the people are resentful; when the zhi tone is disordered, it is mournful, indicating affairs are toilsome; when the yu tone is disordered, it is perilous, indicating resources are depleted. When all five tones are disordered, encroaching upon one another, it is called lax music. In such a case, the state’s destruction is not far off. The music of Zheng and Wei is the music of a chaotic age, close to lax music. The music of Sangjian and Pushang is the music of a dying state; its governance is scattered, the people are drifting, deceiving their superiors and pursuing private gain without restraint.
In general, tones arise from the human mind; music is connected with ethics. Therefore, one who knows only sound but not tone is a beast; one who knows tone but not music is a commoner. Only the gentleman can know music. Thus, by examining sound, one knows tone; by examining tone, one knows music; by examining music, one knows governance; then the way of governance is complete. Therefore, one who does not know sound cannot be spoken with about tone; one who does not know tone cannot be spoken with about music; knowing music brings one close to ritual. To grasp both ritual and music is called possessing virtue. Virtue means attainment. Therefore, the greatness of music does not lie in pursuing the utmost in sound; the ritual of feasting does not lie in pursuing the utmost in flavor. In the Pure Temple, the zither is played with red strings and a hollowed bottom, one person sings and three join in harmony, leaving an excess of sound. In the Grand Feast, dark wine is honored and raw fish is placed on the platter, the great soup has no seasoning, leaving an excess of flavor. Therefore, the former kings made ritual and music not to satisfy the desires of mouth, belly, ears, and eyes, but to teach the people to moderate likes and dislikes and return to the correct path of humanity.
Humans are born tranquil—this is the nature of Heaven. When they respond to external things and become active, that is the expression of their nature. When external things arrive, the mind and perception become aware, and then likes and dislikes take form. If likes and dislikes are unchecked within the mind, and the mind is seduced by external things, unable to return to itself, then the principle of Heaven is extinguished. External things influence people without end, and if people’s likes and dislikes are without restraint, then as things arrive, people follow along and change with them. To change with external things is to extinguish the principle of Heaven and exhaust human desires. Hence there arise rebellious and deceitful hearts, and dissolute and disorderly deeds. Thus the strong coerce the weak, the many oppress the few, the wise deceive the foolish, the brave torment the timid, the sick and suffering receive no support, and the old, young, orphans, and widows find no peace—this is the root of great chaos. Therefore the former kings instituted rites and music to impose regulation: mourning garments and weeping regulated funerals; bells, drums, shields, and axes regulated harmony and joy; marriage, capping, and hairpinning distinguished men and women; archery, village drinking feasts, food offerings, and grand banquets regulated social intercourse. Rites regulate the people’s minds, music harmonizes the people’s voices, governance implements these, and punishments prevent transgressions. When rites, music, governance, and punishments all penetrate without conflict, then the kingly Way is complete.
Music unifies and harmonizes; rites differentiate and distinguish. Unification and harmonization lead to mutual affection; differentiation and distinction lead to mutual respect. When music is excessive, it becomes lax; when rites are excessive, they create estrangement. Harmonizing emotions and adorning conduct are the tasks of rites and music. When ritual principles are established, noble and base have their ranks; when musical patterns are unified, high and low are in harmony; when likes and dislikes are clarified, the worthy and unworthy are distinguished; when punishments prohibit violence and ranks recommend the worthy, governance is equitable. Through benevolence to nurture and righteousness to correct, the governance of the people is thereby implemented.
Music arises from within the mind; rites are manifested externally. Because music arises from within, it is tranquil; because rites are manifested externally, they are adorned. Great music must be simple; great rites must be unadorned. When music reaches its utmost, there is no resentment; when rites reach their utmost, there is no contention. With folded hands and yielding deference to govern all under Heaven—this is what is meant by rites and music. Violent people do not rebel, feudal lords submit, weapons are not used, the five punishments are not applied, the people suffer no calamities, the Son of Heaven does not rage—thus music is realized. Gathering the affection of father and son, clarifying the order of elder and younger, to revere and love all within the four seas—when the Son of Heaven does this, then rites are implemented.
Great music shares harmony with Heaven and Earth; great rites share measure with Heaven and Earth. Through harmony, all things do not lose their nature; through measure, sacrifices are offered to Heaven and Earth. In the manifest realm there are rites and music; in the hidden realm there are spirits and ghosts—thus within the four seas all can share mutual reverence. Rites cause different things to express respect; music causes different patterns to express benevolence. The underlying principles of rites and music are the same, so enlightened kings inherit them from one another. Therefore affairs advance with the times, and names follow achievements. Thus bells, drums, pipes, chime stones, feathered banners, flutes, shields, and axes are the instruments of music; bending, stretching, bowing, looking up, formations, and speed are the expressions of music. Ritual vessels, offering stands, patterned regulations, and ornamental writings are the instruments of rites; ascending, descending, moving up and down, circling, and baring or covering the arms are the expressions of rites. Therefore those who understand the principles of rites and music can create them; those who recognize the expressions of rites and music can expound them. Those who create are called sages; those who expound are called enlightened. Enlightened and sage—these refer to expounding and creating.
Music is the harmony of Heaven and Earth; rites are the order of Heaven and Earth. Through harmony, all things are transformed and grow; through order, all things are distinguished and separated. Music is created in accord with Heaven; rites are established in accord with Earth. When rites are improperly established, there is disorder; when music is improperly created, there is violence. Only by understanding the principles of Heaven and Earth can one then promote rites and music. Harmonizing ethical relations without mutual harm—this is the essence of music; rejoicing and delighting in mutual affection—this is the expression of music. Being upright and without deviance—this is the essence of rites; being solemn, respectful, and gentle—this is the standard of rites. As for applying rites and music to instruments like bells and chime stones, spreading them through sounds, using them in sacrifices at ancestral temples and altars of soil and grain, and serving the mountains, rivers, and spirits—these are carried out together with the people.
Only after a ruler’s achievements are accomplished is music created; only after all under Heaven is settled are rites established. When achievements are great, the music is complete; when governance is thorough, the rites are comprehensive. Dances holding shields and axes do not constitute complete music; sacrifices using cooked food do not constitute thorough rites. The Five Emperors differed in their times and did not follow one another’s music; the Three Kings differed in their generations and did not follow one another’s rites. When music reaches its extreme, it gives rise to anxiety; when rites become too coarse, they lead to error. As for being able to be generous in music without anxiety, and complete in rites without error—only the great sage can do this, perhaps? Heaven is high, Earth is low; the myriad things are dispersed and distinct—thus the system of rites is implemented. The myriad things flow without cease, unite as one and transform—thus music arises. Spring plowing and summer growth—this is benevolence; autumn harvesting and winter storage—this is righteousness. Benevolence is near to music; righteousness is near to rites. Music is generous and harmonious, leading the spirits and following Heaven; rites discriminate and distinguish, dwelling among ghosts and following Earth. Therefore the sage creates music to respond to Heaven and establishes rites to match Earth. When rites and music are clearly complete, Heaven and Earth each fulfill their functions.
Heaven is honored, Earth is base—thus the relationship of ruler and minister is fixed. When high and low are already arrayed, the positions of noble and base are set. Movement and stillness have their constant patterns; great and small have their distinctions. Things of the same kind gather together; different things separate into groups—thus natures and destinies each differ. Forming phenomena in Heaven, taking form on Earth—from this perspective, rites are the distinctions of Heaven and Earth. Earth’s qi rises, Heaven’s qi descends; yin and yang rub against each other, Heaven and Earth stir each other; with thunder to rouse, wind and rain to invigorate, the four seasons to move, sun and moon to warm—thus the myriad things are transformed and arise—from this perspective, music is the harmony of Heaven and Earth.
If transformation is untimely, the myriad things cannot grow; if male and female are not distinguished, there will be chaos—these are the realities of Heaven and Earth. As for rites and music reaching to Heaven and extending through Earth, moving through yin and yang and penetrating to spirits and ghosts, exhausting the high and far-reaching, measuring the deep and profound—music embodies the Great Beginning, while rites embody the generation of the myriad things. What manifests as ceaseless movement is Heaven; what manifests as tranquil stillness is Earth. One movement, one stillness—this is the transformation of Heaven and Earth. Therefore the sage says, “Rites! Music!”
In ancient times, Shun made the five-stringed zither to sing the “Southern Wind”; Kui first created music to bestow upon the feudal lords. Thus the Son of Heaven creates music to bestow it upon virtuous feudal lords. When virtue is great and teachings are honored, when the five grains ripen in season, then music is bestowed upon them. Therefore, those feudal lords who labor in governing the people have dance formations with wide intervals; those who govern with ease have dance formations with narrow intervals. Thus by observing their dances, one knows their virtue; by hearing their posthumous titles, one knows their conduct. The “Great Chapter” manifested Yao’s virtue; “Complete Pool” meant completeness; “Succession” meant continuation; “Great” meant grandeur; the music of Yin and Zhou reached the utmost.
The pattern of Heaven and Earth is such that when cold and heat are untimely, there is illness; when wind and rain are without measure, there is famine. Teaching is to the people like cold and heat—if teaching is untimely, it harms the age. Governance is to the people like wind and rain—if governance is without measure, it achieves no effect. Thus it is that the former kings created music to serve as a standard for governance; when music is well implemented, the people’s conduct becomes like virtue. Raising pigs and brewing wine were not intended to create calamities; yet lawsuits and litigation become more frequent—this is because drinking without restraint produces calamities. Therefore the former kings established the rites of drinking: at a single toast, the host and guest perform a hundred bows; drinking all day without becoming drunk—this was the former kings’ method to prevent the calamities of wine. Thus wine and food are for joyful gatherings.
Music is to symbolize virtue; rites are to prevent excess. Therefore when the former kings had mourning, they invariably had rites to express grief; when they had celebrations, they invariably had rites to express joy: the degrees of grief and joy were both regulated by rites.
Music is a matter of giving; ritual is a matter of returning. Music is rejoicing in the source from which it arises; ritual is recalling its beginning. Music manifests virtue, while ritual returns to the origin and repays feelings. The so-called Great Road is the carriage of the Son of Heaven; the dragon flag with nine streamers is the standard of the Son of Heaven; the tortoise shell with bluish-black edges is the sacred turtle of the Son of Heaven; and in addition, herds of oxen and sheep—these are what are bestowed upon the feudal lords.
Music is that part of the emotions which cannot be altered; ritual is that part of the principles which cannot be changed. Music unifies what is the same; ritual distinguishes differences. The principles of ritual and music penetrate human feelings. Investigating the source and knowing change—this is the essence of music; manifesting sincerity and removing falseness—this is the constant way of ritual. Ritual and music reveal the true state of Heaven and Earth, penetrate the virtue of the spirits and intelligences, cause the upper and lower spirits to arise and descend, condense into the forms of all things, both subtle and coarse, and govern the relationships between father and son, ruler and minister.
Therefore, when the sage kings instituted ritual and music, Heaven and Earth manifested their brightness. Heaven and Earth joyfully intermingled, yin and yang mutually complemented, gently nurturing all living things. Then grasses and trees flourished, sprouts emerged, wings fluttered, horns grew, hibernating insects awakened, birds incubated eggs, beasts conceived and gave birth—those born from wombs did not die prematurely, those born from eggs did not crack open. All of this is the result of the principle of music.
Music does not consist merely of such things as the bells Huang Zhong and Da Lü, strumming zithers, singing songs, holding shields and dancing—these are the minor details of music, so they are assigned to children to perform. Laying out mats, arranging wine vessels and food stands, setting out the vessels bian and dou, and the actions of ascending and descending the steps as ritual—these are the minor details of ritual, so they are handled by the overseeing officials. The music master understands distinguishing sounds, rhythms, and songs, so he faces north while playing. The ancestral invoker understands the rituals of the ancestral temple, so he follows behind the personator of the dead. The mourning invoker understands funeral rites, so he follows behind the chief mourner. Therefore, those who have achieved virtue occupy the higher positions; those who have achieved skill occupy the lower positions. Those who have achieved proper conduct are placed in front; those who handle affairs are placed behind. Thus the former kings had those above and those below, those first and those last—only then could they govern the world.
Music is what the sage loves, for it can improve the people's hearts. It moves people deeply, and it can transform customs and change habits. Therefore, the former kings placed special emphasis on music education.
Human beings possess the nature of blood, breath, and mind, but they have no fixed state of sorrow, joy, anger, or delight. They respond to external things and are stirred, and thus the inner expression takes form. Therefore, when sounds are subtle and urgent, the people become anxious and pensive. When sounds are broad, gentle, and simple in rhythm, the people become peaceful and joyful. When sounds are coarse, fierce, vigorous, and stirring, the people become firm and resolute. When sounds are pure, upright, dignified, and sincere, the people become solemn and respectful. When sounds are generous, rounded, smooth, and harmonious, the people become kind and benevolent. When sounds are, perverse, scattered, and hurried, the people become licentious.
Therefore, the former kings, based on human nature and emotions, examined the degrees of musical pitches, established ritual and righteousness, blended the harmony of life, guided the operation of the five constant virtues, so that yang energy would not be scattered, yin energy would not be blocked, rigid energy would not become violent, and yielding energy would not become timid. These four energies smoothly intermingled within the body and manifested externally, each resting in its proper place without encroaching upon the others. Then they established the levels of learning, extended the rhythms, examined the patterns and ornamentation, in order to regulate virtue. They made distinctions between large and small so that they were proportionate, arranged the order of beginning and end, to symbolize human actions and affairs, so that the principles of closeness and distance, nobility and baseness, seniority and juniority, male and female, were all expressed in music. Hence it is said: "From music, one can observe deeply."
If the land is barren, grasses and trees do not grow. If water is stirred too frequently, fish and turtles do not mature. If the primordial energy is exhausted, living things cannot be born. If the world is chaotic, ritual will be neglected and music will become licentious. Therefore, when the sounds are sorrowful but not dignified, joyful but not peaceful, frivolous and contrary to rhythm, lingering and forgetful of the root, then the music is such that broad sounds harbor evil, and urgent sounds incite greed. Stirred by licentious energy and extinguishing the virtue of harmony, the gentleman despises such music.
Whenever evil sounds stir a person, a contrary energy responds accordingly. When contrary energy forms phenomena, licentious music arises. Whenever upright sounds stir a person, a compliant energy responds accordingly. When compliant energy forms phenomena, harmonious music arises. One sings and another responds in mutual resonance; the deviant and the upright each return to their own kind. The principle of all things is that they respond to their own kind.
Therefore, the gentleman returns to his nature to harmonize his mind, compares with his own kind to accomplish virtue. Evil sounds and chaotic colors do not enter his ears or eyes; licentious music and neglected rituals do not touch his mind; idle and perverse energies do not contaminate his body. He makes his ears, eyes, nose, mouth, mind, and all parts of his body follow the correct path, in order to carry out their proper principles. Then he uses sounds to give them forth, uses zithers and lutes to adorn them, uses shields and axes to dance with them, uses feathers and yak tails to decorate them, uses flutes and pipes to accompany them. He stirs the brilliance of utmost virtue, moves the harmony of the four seasons, and manifests the principles of all things. Therefore, it is clear like Heaven, vast like Earth, cyclical like the four seasons, whirling like wind and rain. The five colors form patterns without disorder; the eight winds respond to the pitches without deviation; the hundred measures attain their numbers and have regularity. The large and small mutually complete each other; the beginning and end mutually generate each other. The singing and responding, the clear and the turbid, alternate and become constant law. Therefore, when music is put into practice, ethical relationships become clear. Ears and eyes become sharp, blood and breath become harmonious, customs are transformed, habits are changed, and the whole world is at peace. Hence it is said: "Music is joy." The gentleman delights in attaining righteousness; the petty man delights in attaining desires. Using righteousness to restrain desires leads to joy without disorder. Forgetting righteousness for the sake of desires leads to confusion without joy. Therefore, the gentleman returns to his nature to harmonize his mind, extends music to complete his teaching. When music is put into practice, the people turn toward the correct path, and from this one can observe virtue.
Virtue is the root of nature; music is the flower of virtue. Metal, stone, silk, and bamboo are the instruments that perform music. Poetry expresses one's aspirations; song chants one's voice; dance displays one's bearing. These three all originate from the heart, and then the spirit of music follows and manifests outwardly. Therefore, when feelings are deep, the ornamentation is bright; when energy is abundant, the transformation is wondrous; when harmony accumulates within, splendor radiates without. Only music cannot be false.
Music is the movement of the heart; sound is the symbol of music; patterns and rhythms are the adornment of sound. The gentleman stirs the root, delights in the symbol of music, and then cultivates its adornment. Therefore, he first uses the drum to give warning, three steps to show direction, then begins again to indicate return, and finally uses the coda to bring order and conclusion. The movements are swift but not toppling, extremely profound but not hidden. He alone rejoices in his own aspirations and does not tire of his own righteousness. He fully carries out his righteousness and does not indulge his own desires. Therefore, emotions are manifested and righteousness is established; the music ends and virtue is honored. The gentleman therefore delights in good deeds; the petty man therefore ceases his faults. Hence it is said: "In the method of nurturing the people, music is most important."
The gentleman says: Ritual and music cannot be separated from the self for a single moment. If one devotes himself to using music to regulate the heart, then the mind of equanimity, uprightness, kindness, and sincerity will naturally arise. When the mind of equanimity, uprightness, kindness, and sincerity arises, one becomes joyful; being joyful, one becomes calm; being calm, one can endure; enduring, one can communicate with Heaven; communicating with Heaven, one reaches the wondrous realm. Heaven does not speak yet has its own trustworthiness; the spirit does not rage yet has its own majesty. Devotion to music is the means to regulate the heart; devotion to ritual is the means to regulate the body. Regulating the body leads to dignity and respect; dignity and respect lead to majesty. If the heart lacks harmony and joy for even a moment, then base and deceitful thoughts will intrude. If the external appearance lacks dignity and respect for even a moment, then frivolous and careless thoughts will intrude. Therefore, music acts upon the heart; ritual acts upon the external. Music achieves utmost harmony; ritual achieves utmost compliance. When the heart is harmonious and the external is compliant, then the people, seeing his countenance, will not contend with him; seeing his demeanor, the people will not be careless. The radiance of virtue issues from within, and the people do not fail to follow it. The expression of principle manifests externally, and the people do not fail to obey it. Hence it is said: "He who understands the principles of ritual and music and applies them throughout the world will have no difficulty."
Music acts upon the inner mind; ritual acts upon the external appearance. Therefore, ritual is primarily about yielding and restraint, while music is primarily about fullness and expansion. Ritual, though yielding, seeks advancement, taking advancement as its refinement; music, though full, seeks restraint, taking restraint as its refinement. If ritual yields without advancing, it will diminish; if music is full without restraint, it will become licentious. Hence, ritual involves reciprocation and music involves restraint. When ritual receives reciprocation, it brings joy; when music achieves restraint, it brings stability. The reciprocation of ritual and the restraint of music share the same principle.
Music is joy, an emotion that human beings cannot avoid. Joy must be expressed through sound and manifested through movement—this is inherent human nature. Sound and movement, the changes in human disposition, are all embodied here. Therefore, people cannot be without joy, and joy cannot be without outward expression. If expression is not guided, disorder cannot be avoided. The ancient kings detested this disorder, so they created the music of Ya and Song to guide it, making the sounds sufficiently joyful without being licentious, the lyrics sufficiently clear without ceasing, and the twists and turns, complexities and simplifications, roughness and rhythm of the melodies sufficient to stir people’s good hearts, preventing wanton thoughts and evil influences from taking hold—this was the principle by which the ancient kings established music. Thus, when music is performed in the ancestral temple, the ruler and ministers, superiors and subordinates, listen together, and there is none who is not harmonious and reverent; when performed in the clans and villages, the old and young listen together, and there is none who is not harmonious and obedient; when performed within the household, fathers and sons, elder and younger brothers listen together, and there is none who is not harmonious and affectionate. Therefore, music determines a single keynote to establish harmony, coordinates various instruments to embellish rhythm, and brings rhythms together to form compositions, used to harmonize the relations between father and son, ruler and minister, and to draw the myriad people close and dependent—this was the principle by which the ancient kings established music. Thus, hearing the sounds of the Ya and Song, one’s aspirations and mind are broadened; holding the shields and axes, practicing the bows and stretches, one’s countenance becomes dignified; treading the dance formations, responding to the rhythm, the ranks are straightened, and advances and retreats become orderly. So music is the unity of heaven and earth, the guiding principle of harmony and balance, and something human emotions cannot avoid.
Music is what the ancient kings used to express joy; armies and battle-axes are what they used to express anger. Thus, the joy and anger of the ancient kings found their appropriate expression. When they rejoiced, the whole world rejoiced with them; when they were angry, the violent and rebellious feared them. The way of the ancient kings—ritual and music—can be said to have flourished greatly.
Marquis Wen of Wei asked Zixia, saying: “When I put on my ceremonial robes and cap and listen to ancient music, I fear I will fall asleep; but when I listen to the music of Zheng and Wei, I know no weariness. May I ask why ancient music is so tiresome, and why new music is so pleasing?”
Zixia replied: “What is now called ancient music advances and retreats in orderly fashion; its sounds are harmonious, balanced, and expansive. Stringed instruments, wind instruments, sheng, and reeds all accompany the drum and clapper. It begins with the civil dance and ends with the martial dance to quell disorder; the xiang regulates the rhythm, and the ya directs the tempo. When the gentleman hears this, he discusses righteousness and principle, cites ancient affairs, cultivates himself, orders his household, and pacifies the world—such is the performance of ancient music. What is now called new music advances and retreats with bent backs and crooked postures; its sounds are evil and licentious, causing people to indulge without stopping, accompanied by jesters and dwarfs, men and women mixed indiscriminately, fathers and sons undifferentiated. When the music ends, one cannot discuss righteousness and principle nor cite ancient affairs—such is the performance of new music. What you ask about is music, but what you enjoy is mere sound. Music and sound are close but different.”
The Marquis said: “May I ask how they differ?”
Zixia replied: “In ancient times, heaven and earth were in accord, and the four seasons were timely; the people possessed virtue, and the five grains ripened; diseases did not arise, and there were no calamities—this was called the greatest appropriateness. Then the sage established the relations between father and son and ruler and minister as guiding principles. When these principles were correct, the world was greatly settled; when the world was greatly settled, then the six pitch-standards were corrected, the five notes harmonized, and the qin and se were plucked while singing odes and hymns—this was called virtuous music. Virtuous music alone is called true music. The Book of Odes says: ‘Silently spreading virtuous fame, his virtue is clear-sighted; clear-sighted in distinguishing good and evil, able to categorize, able to be a leader, able to be a ruler. Ruling this great state, able to be harmonious, able to make others obedient. When it came to King Wen, his virtue had no regret. Having received the blessings of God, they extended to his descendants.’ This speaks of such a principle. What you now enjoy, my lord, is probably that music which causes indulgence?”
The Marquis said: “May I ask where this indulgent music comes from?”
Zixia replied: “The music of Zheng is frivolous and licentious, making one’s will dissolute; the music of Song is idle and seductive, making one’s will languid; the music of Wei is hasty and rapid, making one’s will agitated; the music of Qi is arrogant and depraved, making one’s will arrogant. These four kinds of music are all steeped in sensual beauty and harmful to virtue, so they are not used in sacrifices. The Book of Odes says: ‘Solemn and harmonious they sound, the ancestors come to listen.’ ‘Su su’ means reverence; ‘yong yong’ means harmony. With reverence and harmony, what deed cannot succeed? For a ruler, it is only a matter of being cautious in his likes and dislikes. What the ruler likes, his ministers will practice; what those above do, those below will follow. The Book of Odes says: ‘Guiding the people is easy’—this speaks of such a principle. Then the sage made the tao drum, the gu drum, the qiang, the jia, the xun, and the chi—these six instruments produce the sounds of virtuous music. Then they were accompanied by bells, chimes, yu, and se, and danced with shields, axes, yak tails, and pheasant feathers. These are used to sacrifice in the ancestral temples of the former kings, to offer wine and exchange toasts, to make the ranks and positions of nobility and lowliness appropriate, and to show later generations the order of honor and seniority. The bell’s sound is clanging; clanging establishes commands; commands establish authority; authority establishes martial might. When the gentleman hears the bell, he thinks of martial ministers. The stone chime’s sound is ringing; ringing establishes discrimination; discrimination inspires one to sacrifice one’s life. When the gentleman hears the chime, he thinks of ministers who defend the borders unto death. The sound of silk strings is plaintive; plaintiveness establishes integrity; integrity establishes resolve. When the gentleman hears the qin and se, he thinks of ministers of resolve and righteousness. The sound of bamboo pipes is broad; broadness establishes assembly; assembly gathers the multitude. When the gentleman hears the yu, sheng, xiao, and guan, he thinks of ministers skilled in gathering resources. The sound of the drum and pi is tumultuous; tumultuousness establishes action; action advances the multitude. When the gentleman hears the drum and pi, he thinks of generals and commanders. When the gentleman listens to music, he does not merely hear the clanging sounds; he gains understanding from them.”
Binmou Jia was sitting in attendance beside Confucius. Confucius spoke with him and, coming to the subject of music, asked: “In the Wu dance, there is an initial drumming to warn the multitude, and it lasts a long time. Why is that?”
Binmou Jia replied: “It is because of concern that the support of the people may not be obtained.”
Confucius asked: “The long sighs and continuous sounds—why are they so?”
He replied: “It is because of concern that the great task may not be completed in time.”
Confucius asked: “The early raising of hands and stamping of feet with vigorous energy—why is that?”
He replied: “It is to seize the opportune moment for action.”
Confucius asked: “In the Wu dance, the right knee kneels and the left leg is raised—why is that?”
He replied: “That is not the kneeling posture of the Wu dance.”
Confucius asked: “The music is licentious and contains the shang note—why is that?”
He replied: “That is not the proper sound of the Wu dance.”
Confucius said: “If it is not the proper sound of the Wu dance, what sound is it?”
He replied: “It is what the music officials have lost transmission of. If it is not what the music officials lost, then it is that King Wu’s purpose was confused and muddled.”
Confucius said: “Yes. I have heard this from Chang Hong, and it is as you say.”
Binmou Jia rose, left his mat, and asked: “Regarding the long drumming to warn the multitude before the Wu dance begins, I have already received your instruction. May I ask why the dance movements are slow and prolonged?”
Confucius said, "Sit down, and I will tell you. Music symbolizes the success of an enterprise. Holding the shield and standing firm like a mountain represents King Wu awaiting the assembly of the feudal lords; raising the hands and stamping the feet with vigorous spirit embodies the will of Grand Duke Jiang; the end of the _Wu_ dance, when all kneel, signifies the governance of the Duke of Zhou and the Duke of Shao. Furthermore, regarding the _Wu_ dance: in the first section, they move northward; in the second, they destroy the Shang dynasty; in the third, they turn southward; in the fourth, they incorporate the southern states into the territory; in the fifth, they divide the region of Shan, with the Duke of Zhou governing the left and the Duke of Shao governing the right; in the sixth, they return to their original dance positions to honor the Son of Heaven. On both sides, people shake bells and dance, performing four aggressive movements, greatly displaying martial prowess throughout China. They separate into two groups and advance, for the sake of achieving success quickly. They stand in their dance positions for a long time, to wait for the arrival of the feudal lords. Moreover, have you not heard the tradition of Muye? After King Wu triumphed over Yin Shang, he returned to the Shang capital. Before he had time to dismount from his chariot, he enfeoffed the descendants of the Yellow Emperor at Ji, the descendants of Emperor Yao at Zhu, and the descendants of Emperor Shun at Chen. After dismounting, he enfeoffed the descendants of the Xia sovereigns at Qi and the descendants of the Yin dynasty at Song. He repaired the tomb of Prince Bigan, released the imprisoned Jizi, and ordered him to restore the office of Shang Rong. He abolished the harsh policies for the common people and doubled the rewards for the officers. Then he crossed the Yellow River westward, scattered the horses on the southern side of Mount Hua so they would no longer be ridden, released the oxen into the wilds of Taolin so they would no longer be used, stored the chariots and armor in the arsenals so they would no longer be employed, packed the shields and halberds upside down wrapped in tiger skins, and enfeoffed the generals as lords, calling this practice 'establishing the quiver'—thereafter, all under Heaven knew that King Wu would no longer wage war. He disbanded the army, conducted archery ceremonies at the suburban school, shooting the _Lishou_ on the left and the _Zouyu_ on the right, and the piercing of leather armor with arrows ceased. They donned ceremonial robes and caps, inserted the tablet, and the fierce warriors sheathed their swords. They performed sacrifices in the Hall of Light, and the people understood filial piety. They held court audiences, and the feudal lords knew how to act as ministers. The Son of Heaven personally cultivated the sacred field, and the feudal lords knew how to be reverent. These five matters are the most important teachings in the world. In the Grand Academy, they feasted the Three Elders and the Five Gengs. The Son of Heaven bared his arm and personally cut the meat, presented the sauce, and urged them to drink, wearing a cap and holding a shield while dancing—this was to teach the feudal lords the way of brotherly respect. In such a manner, the transformative influence of Zhou's virtue spread to all quarters, and rites and music prevailed throughout the world. Therefore, is it not fitting that the _Wu_ dance should be performed slowly and at length?"
Zigong paid a visit to Shiyi and asked for instruction, saying, "I have heard that singing should be suited to one's nature and disposition. What kind of song would be fitting for someone like me?"
Shiyi replied, "I, Shiyi, am but a lowly musician. How am I worthy to inquire about what is suitable for you to sing? Allow me to recite what I have heard, and you may decide for yourself. Those who are generous and tranquil, gentle and upright, are suited to sing the _Song_. Those who are broad and serene, penetrating and trustworthy, are suited to sing the _Greater Odes_. Those who are respectful and frugal and delight in ritual are suited to sing the _Lesser Odes_. Those who are upright and incorruptible and humble are suited to sing the _Airs_. Those who are straightforward and kind are suited to sing the _Shang_. Those who are gentle and kind yet decisive are suited to sing the _Qi_. In the matter of singing, it is a direct expression of one's own nature and a setting forth of virtue. When one is moved within, Heaven and Earth respond in harmony, the four seasons are harmonized, the stars maintain their order, and the myriad things flourish. Thus, the _Shang_ songs are the sounds left over from the era of the Five Emperors; the people of Shang recorded them, so they are called _Shang_. The _Qi_ songs are the sounds left over from the Three Dynasties (Xia, Shang, Zhou); the people of Qi recorded them, so they are called _Qi_. Those who understand the _Shang_ poems are able to make resolute decisions when encountering affairs; those who understand the _Qi_ poems are able to yield when seeing profit. Being able to make resolute decisions in affairs is courage; being able to yield when seeing profit is righteousness. With both courage and righteousness, if it were not through singing, who could preserve such virtue? Therefore, in the matter of singing, when the sound rises, it is like being lifted up; when it falls, it is like dropping; when it turns, it is like breaking; when it stops, it is like dried wood; when level, it matches the carpenter's square; when curved, it is like a hook; when continuous, it is like a string of pearls. Thus, singing, as a form of speech, is the prolongation of sound. When the heart is joyful, it must be expressed through words; when words are insufficient, it is prolonged into sound; when sound is still insufficient, it becomes sighing and chanting; when sighing and chanting are still insufficient, unconsciously the hands dance and the feet move." Zigong asked Shiyi about the principles of music.
All music originates from the human heart. Heaven and humankind have a reciprocal relationship, like a shadow following a form, like an echo responding to a sound. Therefore, those who do good, Heaven repays them with blessings; those who do evil, Heaven punishes them with calamity—this is the natural way.
Thus, when Shun played the five-stringed zither and sang the poem _Southern Wind_, the world was well governed. When King Zhou of Shang composed the vulgar music from the northern outskirts of Zhaoge, he met with death and the ruin of his state. Why was Shun's way so vast? Why was Zhou's way so narrow? That poem _Southern Wind_ is music that nurtures the myriad things. Shun loved it, and his music was in accord with the mind of Heaven and Earth, winning the hearts of all the states, and so the world was governed. That place Zhaoge was inauspicious; 'north' symbolizes failure; 'vulgar' symbolizes baseness. King Zhou loved this music, turning against the hearts of all the states. The feudal lords did not submit, the people did not feel close, and all under Heaven rebelled against him, leading to his death and the destruction of his state.
During the time of Duke Ling of Wei, he was about to travel to Jin and lodged by the banks of the Pu River. In the middle of the night, he heard the sound of someone playing the zither. He asked his attendants, but they all replied, "We did not hear it." So he summoned Shi Juan and said, "I heard the sound of a zither. When I asked those around me, they all said they did not hear it. This seems like the work of a spirit. Listen carefully for me and record the music." Shi Juan said, "Yes." He sat upright, placed his hand on the zither, and listened, recording the music as he heard it. The next day, Shi Juan said, "I have recorded the tune, but I am not yet proficient in it. Allow me to stay another night to practice it thoroughly." The duke said, "Very well." So he stayed another night. The next day, Shi Juan reported, "I have now mastered it." They then left that place and went to Jin to meet Duke Ping of Jin. Duke Ping hosted a feast at the Shi Hui Terrace. When the wine was flowing freely, Duke Ling said, "On my journey here, I heard a new tune. Allow me to have it performed." Duke Ping said, "By all means." Duke Ling then ordered Shi Juan to sit beside Shi Kuang and take up the zither to play. Before the piece was finished, Shi Kuang stopped the strings with his hand and said, "This is the music of a doomed state. It should not be heard to the end." Duke Ping said, "What do you mean by this?" Shi Kuang said, "This tune was composed by Shi Yan. He created licentious music for King Zhou of Shang. When King Wu of Zhou campaigned against Zhou, Shi Yan fled eastward and threw himself into the Pu River. Therefore, this tune can only be heard on the banks of the Pu River. The state that first hears this tune will surely be weakened." Duke Ping said, "What I love is only the music. I wish to hear it to the end." So Shi Juan finished playing the tune.
Duke Ping said, "Is there no music sadder than this?" Shi Kuang said, "There is." Duke Ping said, "May I hear it?" Shi Kuang said, "Your virtue and righteousness are shallow. You should not hear this." Duke Ping said, "What I love is only the music. I wish to hear it." Shi Kuang had no choice but to take up the zither and play. When he played the first passage, sixteen black cranes gathered at the gallery gate. When he played the second passage, these cranes stretched their necks and cried out, spreading their wings and dancing.
Duke Ping was extremely pleased, rose to his feet, and offered a toast to Music Master Kuang. Returning to his seat, he asked again, "Is there no music sadder than this?" Music Master Kuang said, "There is. In ancient times, the Yellow Emperor used this kind of music to assemble the spirits and gods. But now your virtue and righteousness are shallow and meager, insufficient to hear it; hearing it will bring disaster." Duke Ping said, "I am already old; what I love is only music. I hope you will let me hear it to the end." Music Master Kuang had no alternative but to take up his zither and play. When he played the first movement, white clouds arose from the northwest; when he played the second movement, a great wind came, with heavy rain following, tearing off the tiles from the corridors. Those on the left and right all fled in all directions. Duke Ping was terrified, prostrating himself between the corridors. As a result, Jin suffered a severe drought, and for three years the land did not grow even a blade of grass.
Those who listen to music may obtain good fortune or incur calamity. Music cannot be performed casually.
The Grand Historian says: The sage kings of high antiquity created music not to amuse their minds, please themselves, satisfy desires, or indulge emotions, but to use it in governing the state. Correct transformation begins with music; when music is correct, conduct becomes correct. Therefore, music is used to stir the blood vessels, open up the spirit, and harmonize and rectify the mind. Thus, the gong note moves the spleen, harmonizing and rectifying sageliness; the shang note moves the lungs, harmonizing and rectifying righteousness; the jue note moves the liver, harmonizing and rectifying benevolence; the zhi note moves the heart, harmonizing and rectifying ritual propriety; the yu note moves the kidneys, harmonizing and rectifying wisdom. Therefore, music can internally assist in rectifying the mind, and externally distinguish noble and base; upward it can serve in ancestral temple sacrifices, and downward it can transform the people. The zither is eight feet one inch long; this is the standard measure. The thickest string is the gong note, located in the center of the zither, symbolizing the ruler. The shang note is strung on the right, and the remaining strings are arranged in order of size without confusion; thus the positions of ruler and minister are rectified. Therefore, hearing the gong note makes people gentle and peaceful, broad-minded and generous; hearing the shang note makes people upright and fond of righteousness; hearing the jue note makes people compassionate and loving toward others; hearing the zhi note makes people joyful in doing good and fond of giving; hearing the yu note makes people orderly and fond of ritual propriety. Ritual regulates people's conduct externally; music cultivates people's emotions internally. Therefore, the noble person cannot be separated from ritual for an instant; separated from ritual for an instant, then rough and arrogant behavior will appear externally. He cannot be separated from music for an instant; separated from music for an instant, then depraved conduct will arise internally. Thus, music is what the noble person uses to cultivate righteousness. In ancient times, the Son of Heaven and the feudal lords never left the court without hearing the sounds of bells and chime stones; the high ministers and great officers never left their presence without hearing the sounds of zithers and lutes. This was to cultivate conduct and righteousness and to prevent indulgence and dissipation. Indulgence and dissipation arise from lacking ritual, so the sages caused people's ears to hear the music of the Ya and Song, their eyes to see the dignified ceremonies, their steps to move in respectful demeanor, and their mouths to speak the principles of benevolence and righteousness. Therefore, the noble person speaks of benevolence and righteousness all day long, and depraved things cannot enter his mind.