Book of the Feng and Shan Sacrifices, Sixth

Since ancient times, emperors who received the Mandate of Heaven have invariably performed the Feng and Shan sacrifices. There have likely been some who forced the ceremonies without auspicious omens, but none have ever seen auspicious signs and yet not gone to Mount Tai. Although some received the Mandate, their achievements were incomplete; they reached Mount Liangfu but their virtue was not fully realized; or their virtue was realized but time was lacking. Thus, very few emperors performed the Feng and Shan sacrifices. The records say: "If rites are not performed for three years, they will surely decay; if music is not played for three years, it will surely be ruined." Whenever an era flourished, the Feng and Shan sacrifices were performed to repay Heaven, and when it declined, they ceased. The distant ages span over a thousand years, and the recent ones several hundred years, so the rites have been lost and obliterated, and the details can no longer be recorded or heard.

The Book of Documents says that Shun observed the heavens using the Xuanji and Yuheng instruments to harmonize the movements of the sun, moon, and five planets. Then he sacrificed to the Supreme God, offered distant sacrifices to the six spirits (of heaven, earth, and the four directions), gazed upon the famous mountains and great rivers to offer sacrifices, and universally worshipped all the spirits. He collected the jade tablets of the five ranks of nobles, selected an auspicious day and month, summoned the Four Mountains and all the regional lords, and returned the jade tablets. In the second month of that year, he made an eastern inspection tour and arrived at Dai Zong. Dai Zong is Mount Tai. He burned wood to sacrifice to Heaven and offered distant sacrifices to the mountains and rivers in order. Then he received the eastern feudal lords. The eastern feudal lords were the rulers of the eastern states. He standardized the four seasons, months, and days, unified pitch pipes, weights and measures, clarified the five rites, and used the five jade tablets, three types of silk in different colors, two living animals, and one dead animal as tribute. In the fifth month, he toured to the Southern Mountain. The Southern Mountain is Mount Heng. In the eighth month, he toured to the Western Mountain. The Western Mountain is Mount Hua. In the eleventh month, he toured to the Northern Mountain. The Northern Mountain is Mount Heng. All these were performed with the same rites as those at Dai Zong. The Central Mountain is Mount Song. He made an inspection tour once every five years.

Yu followed this practice. After fourteen generations, during the time of Emperor Kong Jia, his virtue was degenerate, and he indulged in ghosts and spirits, profaning them, so the two dragons flew away. After three generations, Tang of Shang attacked Jie of Xia and wanted to move the altar of the Xia state, but failed, composing the Xia She. After eight generations, during the time of Emperor Tai Wu, mulberry and grain trees grew in the court, reaching a girth of two hands' breadth overnight. Tai Wu was terrified. Yi Zhi said: "Portents cannot overcome virtue." Tai Wu cultivated his virtue, and the mulberry and grain trees died. Yi Zhi praised Wu Xian, and the rise of Wu Xian began from then. After fourteen generations, Emperor Wu Ding obtained Fu Yue as his chancellor, and the Yin dynasty revived, becoming known as Gaozong. A pheasant landed on the ear of a tripod and crowed. Wu Ding was afraid. Zu Ji said: "Cultivate virtue." Wu Ding followed him, and his throne thus endured long. After five generations, Emperor Wu Yi, who was disrespectful to spirits, was killed by lightning. After three generations, Emperor Zhou was debauched and tyrannical, and King Wu of Zhou attacked him. From this perspective, at the beginning none were not reverent and serious, but later they gradually became negligent and lax.

The Zhou Guan says that on the winter solstice, sacrifices were offered to Heaven in the southern suburb to welcome the lengthening of the day; on the summer solstice, sacrifices were offered to the Earth spirits. Both used music and dance, so that the spirits could be worshipped. The Son of Heaven sacrificed to the famous mountains and great rivers of the realm, treating the Five Mountains with the rites due to the Three Dukes, and the Four Rivers with the rites due to the feudal lords. The feudal lords sacrificed to the famous mountains and great rivers within their own territories. The Four Rivers are the Yangtze, Yellow River, Huai, and Ji. The places where the Son of Heaven sacrificed were called Mingtang and Biyong, and those where the feudal lords sacrificed were called Pan Gong.

After the Duke of Zhou had assisted King Cheng, he sacrificed to Hou Ji in the suburbs to accompany Heaven, and sacrificed to King Wen in the Mingtang to accompany the Supreme God. Since the rise of Yu, the altar of the earth was established, and Hou Ji engaged in agriculture, so there was a shrine for Hou Ji. The origins of the suburban and earth sacrifices were already ancient.

Since the Zhou dynasty conquered the Yin dynasty, after fourteen generations, the world became more decadent, rites and music were neglected, the feudal lords acted arbitrarily, and King You of Zhou was defeated by the Quanrong. The Zhou dynasty moved its capital east to Luoyi. Duke Xiang of Qin attacked the Quanrong to rescue Zhou and was first enfeoffed as a feudal lord. After Duke Xiang of Qin was enfeoffed, he dwelt in the western borderlands, considering himself the master of the Shaohao spirit. He built the Xi Zhi and sacrificed to the White Emperor, using a black-maned red horse, a yellow ox, and a ram as victims. Sixteen years later, Duke Wen of Qin hunted east between the Qian and Wei rivers, divined that it was auspicious to dwell there. Duke Wen dreamed of a yellow snake descending from heaven to earth, its mouth stopping at a mound in Fu. Duke Wen asked Shi Dun, who said: "This is a sign from the Supreme God. You should sacrifice to it." So he built the Fu Zhi and sacrificed to the White Emperor in the suburbs with three victims.

Before the Fu Zhi was built, near Yongcheng there was originally the Wuyang Wu Zhi, and east of Yongcheng there was the Hao Zhi, both abandoned without sacrifices. Some said: "Since ancient times, because the land of Yong was high, it was a gathering place for spirits, so altars were established to sacrifice to the Supreme God, and all kinds of spirit shrines were concentrated there. It is probable that the Yellow Emperor once performed sacrifices there, and even in the late Zhou, suburban sacrifices were held there." These words are not found in the classics, and the scholar-officials do not discuss them.

Nine years after the Fu Zhi was built, Duke Wen of Qin obtained a stone-like jade and built a city on the northern slope of Chencang to sacrifice to it. That spirit sometimes did not come for a year, sometimes came several times a year. When it came, it was always at night, shining like a meteor, gathering from the southeast over the sacrificial city, like a rooster, with a rumbling sound, and pheasants crowed at night. A single victim was used for the sacrifice, and it was named Chen Bao.

Seventy-eight years after the Fu Zhi was built, Duke De of Qin ascended the throne and divined that dwelling in Yong was auspicious, saying: "Descendants can water their horses at the Yellow River." So he established his capital in Yong. The various shrines in Yong flourished from then on. He used three hundred victims for the sacrifice at the Fu Zhi. He also built a shrine for the summer solstice sacrifice. He killed dogs at the four gates of the city to ward off the calamities of poison and pests.

Duke De of Qin reigned for two years and died. One year later, Duke Xuan of Qin built the Mi Zhi south of the Wei River and sacrificed to the Green Emperor.

Fourteen years later, Duke Mu of Qin ascended the throne. He lay ill for five days without waking; when he awoke, he said he had dreamed of the Supreme God, who ordered him to pacify the turmoil in Jin. The scribe recorded it and stored it in the archives. Later generations all said that Duke Mu of Qin had ascended to heaven.

Nine years after Duke Mu of Qin ascended the throne, Duke Huan of Qi had already become hegemon. He assembled the feudal lords at Kuiqiu and wished to perform the Feng and Shan sacrifices. Guan Zhong said: "In ancient times, those who performed the Feng sacrifice on Mount Tai and the Shan sacrifice on Mount Liangfu numbered seventy-two families, but I recall only twelve. In the past, the Wuhuai family performed the Feng on Mount Tai and the Shan on Mount Yunyun; Fuxi performed the Feng on Mount Tai and the Shan on Mount Yunyun; Shennong performed the Feng on Mount Tai and the Shan on Mount Yunyun; Yandi performed the Feng on Mount Tai and the Shan on Mount Yunyun; the Yellow Emperor performed the Feng on Mount Tai and the Shan on Mount Tingting; Zhuanxu performed the Feng on Mount Tai and the Shan on Mount Yunyun; Diku performed the Feng on Mount Tai and the Shan on Mount Yunyun; Yao performed the Feng on Mount Tai and the Shan on Mount Yunyun; Shun performed the Feng on Mount Tai and the Shan on Mount Yunyun; Yu performed the Feng on Mount Tai and the Shan on Mount Kuaiji; Tang performed the Feng on Mount Tai and the Shan on Mount Yunyun; King Cheng of Zhou performed the Feng on Mount Tai and the Shan on Mount Shoushou: all these were done after receiving the Mandate of Heaven." Duke Huan of Qi said: "I have campaigned north against the Shanrong, passing through the state of Guzhu; west against Daxia, crossing the Liusha, binding my horses and hanging my chariots, ascending Mount Bier; south, reaching Zhaoling, ascending Mount Xiong'er to gaze at the Yangtze and Han Rivers. There have been three assemblies with war chariots and six assemblies with carriages, nine times I have assembled the feudal lords, and once I unified the world; none of the feudal lords have opposed me. In the past, the three dynasties received the Mandate of Heaven; how am I different?" Then Guan Zhong, seeing that he could not persuade Duke Huan with words, used reason to create obstacles, saying: "In ancient Feng and Shan sacrifices, the millet from Hao and the grain from Beili were used as offerings; between the Yangtze and Huai rivers, there was a three-ridge thatch used as mats. The Eastern Sea offered the flatfish, the Western Sea offered the double-winged bird, and then there were fifteen kinds of things that came without being summoned. Now, the phoenix and qilin do not come, fine grain does not grow, but mugwort, brambles, and weeds flourish, and owls come repeatedly. If you wish to perform the Feng and Shan sacrifices, is it perhaps not permissible?" Then Duke Huan of Qi desisted. That year, Duke Mu of Qin accepted the ruler of Jin, Yiwu. Later, he installed three rulers of Jin and pacified the turmoil in Jin. Duke Mu of Qin reigned for thirty-nine years and died.

More than a hundred years later, Confucius discussed the Six Arts, and in the transmitted summaries it is said that over seventy sovereigns who changed their surnames and became kings performed the feng sacrifice on Mount Tai and the shan sacrifice on Mount Liangfu. The rituals for those sacrifices were not clearly recorded, and it is perhaps difficult to explain them fully. When someone asked about the di sacrifice, Confucius said: "I do not know. If one understood the explanation of the di sacrifice, governing the empire would be as easy as looking at one's own palm." The Odes say that during the reign of King Zhou, King Wen received the Mandate of Heaven, but his governance and teachings did not extend to Mount Tai. King Wu conquered the Yin dynasty two years later, but before the empire was settled, he died. By the time the virtue of the Zhou dynasty was harmonious during the reign of King Cheng, his feng and shan sacrifices came close to the ideal. Later, when subordinate ministers held power, the Ji family sacrificed to Mount Tai, and Confucius ridiculed them.

At this time, Chang Hong served King Ling of Zhou with techniques of the arts. None of the feudal lords came to pay court to Zhou, and Zhou's power was weak. Chang Hong then promoted matters of ghosts and spirits, instituting the ritual of shooting the li shou. The li shou referred to those feudal lords who did not come to court. By relying on strange and unusual things, he hoped to summon the feudal lords. The feudal lords did not comply, and the people of Jin captured and killed Chang Hong. Among the people of Zhou, the discussion of arts and strange phenomena began with Chang Hong.

More than a hundred years later, Duke Ling of Qin built the Upper Zhi at Wuyang to sacrifice to the Yellow Emperor, and built the Lower Zhi to sacrifice to the Flame Emperor.

Forty-eight years later, the Grand Historiographer Dan of Zhou saw Duke Xian of Qin and said: "Qin was first united with Zhou; after uniting, they separated. After five hundred years, they should be reunited. Seventeen years after reunification, a hegemon king will appear." The rain of gold fell at Liyang, and Duke Xian of Qin considered this a golden auspicious sign, so he built the Qi Zhi at Liyang to sacrifice to the White Emperor.

One hundred and twenty years later, Qin destroyed Zhou, and the nine tripods of Zhou came into the possession of Qin. Some said that the altar of the Great Altar of Song disappeared, and the nine tripods sank into the Sishui River below Pengcheng.

One hundred and fifteen years later, Qin unified the empire.

After the First Emperor of Qin had unified the empire and proclaimed himself emperor, someone said: "The Yellow Emperor obtained the virtue of earth; the yellow dragon and earthworms appeared. The Xia dynasty obtained the virtue of wood; the green dragon stopped in the outskirts, and plants and trees flourished. The Yin dynasty obtained the virtue of metal; silver flowed from the mountains. The Zhou dynasty obtained the virtue of fire; there was the auspicious sign of the red crow. Now Qin has replaced Zhou; this is the era of the virtue of water. Formerly, when Duke Wen of Qin went hunting, he captured a black dragon; this is the auspicious sign of the virtue of water." Thus Qin changed the name of the Yellow River to "Virtuous Water," made the tenth month of winter the beginning of the year, honored the color black, used the number six as the standard in measurements, esteemed the musical note Great Lu in music, and prioritized laws and decrees in governance.

Three years after ascending the throne, he made an eastern inspection tour of the commanderies and counties, sacrificed at Mount Zouyi, and praised the achievements of Qin. He then summoned and followed seventy Confucian scholars and academicians from Qi and Lu, reaching the foot of Mount Tai. Among the scholars, some discussed: "In ancient times, the feng and shan sacrifices used carts with wheels wrapped in rushes, to avoid harming the soil, stones, grass, and trees of the mountain; they swept the ground to make the altar, using straw mats, saying it was easy to follow." When the First Emperor heard these opinions, each was strange and different from the others, difficult to implement, and thus he dismissed the scholars. He then repaired the carriage road, ascending from the southern side of Mount Tai all the way to the summit, erected a stone tablet praising the virtue of the First Emperor of Qin, and made clear that he had performed the feng sacrifice. He descended by the road on the northern side of the mountain and performed the shan sacrifice at Mount Liangfu. The rituals largely adopted those used by the Grand Supplicant when sacrificing to the Supreme God at Yong, and the items sealed and stored were kept secret, with no one able to record them.

When the First Emperor of Qin climbed Mount Tai, he encountered a violent rainstorm halfway up, and rested under a large tree. The various scholars, having already been dismissed and unable to participate in the feng and shan ceremonies, heard that the First Emperor had encountered wind and rain, and they ridiculed him.

Thereupon the First Emperor of Qin traveled eastward to the sea, performed rituals to sacrifice to the famous mountains, great rivers, and the eight spirits, and sought the immortals like Xianmen and others. The eight spirits had existed since ancient times; some said they were established from the time of Grand Duke Jiang. The land of Qi was called Qi because it was at the navel (Tian Qi) of heaven. These sacrifices had been discontinued and lost, and no one knew when they began. The eight spirits were: the first was called the Lord of Heaven, sacrificed to at Tian Qi. Tian Qi was a deep pool, located at the foot of the mountain in the southern outskirts of Linzi. The second was called the Lord of Earth, sacrificed to at Mount Tai and Mount Liangfu. It was probably because Heaven delights in yin, so the sacrifice to it must be performed on a small hill below a high mountain, named a "zhi"; Earth esteems yang, so the sacrifice to it must be performed on a round mound in the marsh. The third was called the Lord of Weapons, sacrificing to Chiyou. The shrine of Chiyou was at Jianxiang in Dongping Lu, located on the western border of Qi. The fourth was called the Lord of Yin, sacrificed to at Mount San. The fifth was called the Lord of Yang, sacrificed to at Zhifu. The sixth was called the Lord of the Moon, sacrificed to at Mount Zhilai. These were all in the northern part of Qi, near the Bohai Sea. The seventh was called the Lord of the Sun, sacrificed to at Mount Cheng. Mount Cheng jutted steeply into the sea, located at the far northeastern corner of Qi, used to welcome the sunrise. The eighth was called the Lord of the Four Seasons, sacrificed to at Langya. Langya was in the eastern part of Qi, probably the beginning of the year. For these sacrifices, each used one victim and offerings, and the invocators and supplicants made additions or reductions, and the jade tablets and silk fabrics also varied.

From the time of King Wei of Qi and King Xuan of Qi, Zou Yan and others discussed and composed the theory of the cycle of the Five Virtues. When Qin proclaimed itself emperor, the people of Qi presented these theories, so the First Emperor adopted them. Song Wuji, Zheng Boqiao, Chong Shang, and Xianmen Gao were all people of Yan, and they practiced the arts of the immortals, advocating the release of the body and the transformation into a flying spirit, relying on matters of ghosts and spirits. Zou Yan became prominent among the feudal lords through his theory of the cyclical movement of yin and yang as the master; and the alchemists of the coastal regions of Yan and Qi transmitted his arts but could not fully comprehend them. Nevertheless, those who were bizarre, circuitous, flattering, and opportunistically agreeable arose from this, in numbers too many to count.

From the time of King Wei of Qi, King Xuan of Qi, and King Zhao of Yan, people were sent to sea to seek Penglai, Fangzhang, and Yingzhou. These three divine mountains were said to be in the midst of the Bohai Sea, not far from people; the trouble was that when one was about to approach, the boat would be blown away by the wind. It was said that someone had once reached them, and that the immortals and the elixir of immortality were all there. The creatures and birds there were all white, and the palaces and towers were built of gold and silver. Before reaching them, they looked like clouds from afar; but upon arriving, the three divine mountains would instead be beneath the water's surface. When one approached them, the wind always blew them away, so that no one could ever reach them. No earthly ruler did not yearn for them. By the time the First Emperor of Qin unified the empire, he went to the sea, and the alchemists spoke of these things in numbers too many to count. The First Emperor himself thought that if he went to sea, he might not be in time, so he sent people with young boys and girls to search for them. When the boats reached the middle of the sea, they all used the wind as an excuse, saying they could not reach them, only seeing them from afar. The next year, the First Emperor again traveled to the sea, reaching Langya, passing by Mount Heng, and returning through Shangdang. Three years later, he traveled to Jieshi, examined the alchemists who had gone to sea, and returned through Shangjun. Five years later, the First Emperor traveled south to Mount Xiang, then ascended Mount Kuaiji, and went north along the coast, hoping to encounter the miraculous herbs of the three divine mountains in the sea. He did not find them, and on his return, he died at Shaqiu.

In the first year of the Second Emperor of Qin, he traveled east to Jieshi, went south along the sea, passed by Mount Tai, reached Mount Kuaiji, and at all these places performed rituals and sacrifices, and engraved inscriptions beside the stone tablets erected by the First Emperor, to manifest the virtue of the First Emperor. That autumn, the feudal lords rebelled against Qin. Three years later, the Second Emperor was killed.

Twelve years after the First Emperor of Qin performed the feng and shan sacrifices, Qin fell. The many scholars hated Qin for burning the Odes and Documents and killing literary scholars; the people resented Qin's laws; and the whole empire rebelled against it. They all spread rumors, saying: "The First Emperor went up Mount Tai, was struck by a violent rainstorm, and could not complete the feng sacrifice." Was this not what is called lacking the virtue yet insisting on acting?

In antiquity, the three dynasties of Xia, Shang, and Zhou were all in the region between the Yellow River and the Luo River, so Mount Songgao became the Central Marchmount, while the Four Marchmounts were each according to their directions, and the Four Rivers were all east of the mountains. By the time Qin proclaimed itself emperor and made Xianyang its capital, the Five Marchmounts and the Four Rivers were all in the east. From the Five Emperors down to Qin, the rise and decline alternated; the famous mountains and great rivers were sometimes within the domains of the feudal lords and sometimes within the directly ruled territory of the Son of Heaven, and their sacrificial rituals varied by era, with additions and reductions too numerous to record. By the time Qin unified the empire, the sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, the famous mountains and great rivers, and the ghosts and spirits, which the Office of Sacrifices regularly performed, could be recorded in order.

Thus, east of Mount Xiao, there were five famous mountains and two great rivers that required sacrifices. The famous mountains were: Taishi, which was Mount Songgao; Hengshan; Taishan; Kuaiji; and Xiangshan. The great rivers were: the Ji River and the Huai River. In spring, annual routine sacrifices were conducted with dried meat and wine, taking advantage of the thaw; in autumn, at the time of freezing; and in winter, prayers of thanksgiving to the spirits were offered. The victims for these sacrifices were one calf each, while the offerings, jade tablets, and silk fabrics varied accordingly.

West of Mount Hua, there were seven famous mountains and four famous rivers. The famous mountains were: Huashan; Boshan, which was also called Shuai Shan; Yueshan; Qishan; Wuyue; Hongzhong; and Dushan, which was the Wen Shan in Shu Commandery. The famous rivers were: the Yellow River, sacrificed to at Linjin; the Mian River, sacrificed to at Hanzhong; the Qiu Abyss, sacrificed to at Chaona; and the Yangtze River, sacrificed to in Shu Commandery. They also had prayers and thanksgiving at the spring thaw and autumn freeze, following the same rites as the famous mountains and great rivers in the east; but the victims, calves, offerings, jade tablets, and silk fabrics were different. As for the four great mounds—Hongzhong, Qishan, Wuyue, and Yueshan—they all received sacrifices of the first fruits of the harvest.

The Chen Bao spirit came at the appointed seasons to receive sacrifices. The Yellow River sacrifice additionally included an offering of newly brewed wine. These were all within Yongzhou, near the Son of Heaven’s capital, so an extra carriage and four red colts were added.

The Ba River, Chan River, Zhang River, Feng River, Lao River, Jing River, and Wei River were not great rivers, but because they were near Xianyang, they were all allowed to be treated as mountains and rivers in sacrifices, though without the added rites.

The Qiu River and Luo River, two abyss waters, as well as Mingze, Pushan, and Yuekong Shan and the like, belonged to the category of small mountains and rivers, and they too annually held prayers, thanksgiving, and sacrifices at the thaw and freeze, though the rites were not necessarily identical.

In Yong, there were the sun, moon, the constellations Shen and Chen, the Southern and Northern Dippers, Yinghuo (Mars), Taibai (Venus), Suixing (Jupiter), Zhenxing (Saturn), the Twenty-eight Mansions, Fengbo (Wind Lord), Yushi (Rain Master), the Four Seas, the Nine Ministers, the Fourteen Ministers, various Bu (spread) spirits, various Yan (stern) spirits, and various Qiu (seeking) spirits—altogether over a hundred temples. To the west, there were also several dozen shrines. At Hu County, there was a temple to the Zhou Son of Heaven. At Xiagui, there was a temple to the Heavenly Spirit. At Feng and Hao, there were the Zhaoming Temple and the Son of Heaven’s Pi Pond. At Du and Bo, there were temples to the Three She Lords and the Star of Longevity; and at Yong, the Guan Temple also housed the Du Lord. The Du Lord was formerly the Right General of the Zhou dynasty; in Qin territory, he was the most efficacious among the lesser spirits. Each was offered sacrifices at the appropriate seasons.

Only the four Yong altars (Zhi) for sacrificing to the Supreme God were the most honored, and among them, it was the Chen Bao spirit that most moved the people with its radiance. Thus, at the four Yong altars, in spring there were annual routine prayers at the thaw, in autumn at the freeze, in winter thanksgiving sacrifices, in the fifth month a sacrifice with colts, and monthly sacrifices in each of the four middle months; the Chen Bao spirit came once each season for a sacrifice. In spring and summer, red victims were used; in autumn and winter, red colts. For each altar, four colts were used, along with one set of wooden dragons and a luan carriage, and one set of wooden chariots and horses, each matching the color of the god being sacrificed to. Four yellow calves and four lambs were also used, along with jade tablets and silk fabrics in fixed amounts, all buried alive in the ground, without any ritual vessels such as zu (meat stands) or dou (grain vessels). Every three years, a suburban sacrifice was held. Qin began the year with the tenth month of winter, so the suburban sacrifice was always performed after a fast in the tenth month; beacon fires were lit, and the rites were conducted near Xianyang, with clothing favoring white, and the sacrificial rites followed the regular procedures. The Western Altar and the Qi Altar continued their sacrifices as before, but the emperor did not personally attend.

These sacrifices were all managed by the Grand Supplicant, who offered them at the appointed seasons. As for other famous mountains and great rivers, all the spirits, and the Eight Spirits and the like, the emperor sacrificed to them when he passed by, and ceased when he left. The shrines of distant commanderies and principalities were offered sacrifices by the people themselves, and were not under the jurisdiction of the Son of Heaven’s supplicants. Among the supplicants was a Secret Supplicant, who, when calamities occurred, would conduct prayers and transfer the blame to subordinates.

When the Han dynasty arose, Emperor Gaozu, while still lowly, once killed a great snake. A spirit said, "The snake is the son of the White Emperor, and the one who killed it is the son of the Red Emperor." When Gaozu first raised troops, he prayed at the Fen Yu Shrine in Feng. After capturing Pei County, he became the Duke of Pei, and then sacrificed to Chiyou, smearing blood on drums and banners. Then in the tenth month, he arrived at Ba Shang, and together with the feudal lords, pacified Xianyang, being established as the King of Han. Therefore, he made the tenth month the beginning of the year, and favored the color red.

In the second year of Han, after marching east to attack Xiang Yu, he returned and entered the Pass, asking, "What gods did the former Qin dynasty sacrifice to?" The reply was, "Four gods: the White Emperor, the Green Emperor, the Yellow Emperor, and the Red Emperor were sacrificed to." Gaozu said, "I have heard that Heaven has five gods, yet only four are here—why?" No one knew the answer. So Gaozu said, "I understand now; this is waiting for me to complete the five." Thereupon, he established a temple to the Black Emperor, naming it the Northern Altar. The relevant officials presented the sacrifices, but the emperor did not personally attend. He summoned all the former Qin supplicants and re-established the Grand Supplicant and Grand Steward, following the old ritual system. Then he ordered each county to establish a commune shrine. He issued an edict saying, "I greatly value sacrifices and reverently worship. Now, the Supreme God and all the mountain and river spirits who should be sacrificed to are each to be offered sacrifices at their proper seasons, following the old rites and ceremonies."

Four years later, when the realm was already pacified, he issued an edict to the Censor, ordering that Feng County carefully manage the Fen Yu Shrine, regularly offering sacrifices of sheep and pigs in the four seasons. He ordered the supplicants to establish a temple to Chiyou in Chang’an. Chang’an established offices for supplicants and shamanesses. Among these, the shamans of Liang sacrificed to Heaven, Earth, the Heavenly Commune, the Heavenly Waters, the Inner Chamber, the Hall, and the like; the shamans of Jin sacrificed to the Five Gods, the Eastern Lord, Yunzhong (Cloud Center), Siming (Director of Fate), the Shaman Commune, the Shaman Shrine, the Clan People, the First Cook, and the like; the shamans of Qin sacrificed to the Commune Lord, the Shaman Protector, the Clan Accumulator, and the like; the shamans of Jing sacrificed to the Hall Below, the Shaman Ancestor, Siming, the Spreader of Millet, and the like; the shamans of the Nine Heavens sacrificed to the Nine Heavens: all were offered sacrifices in the palace at the proper seasons. The shamans of the Yellow River sacrificed to the Yellow River at Linjin, and the shamans of the Southern Mountains sacrificed to Qinzhong at the Southern Mountains. Qinzhong was the Second Emperor of Qin. Each had its fixed time.

Two years later, someone said that when the Zhou dynasty arose, it established its capital at Tai and set up a temple to Houji, which to this day enjoys sacrifices from the realm. So Gaozu issued an edict to the Censor: "Order all commanderies, kingdoms, and counties to establish Lingxing (Star of Agriculture) shrines, and regularly offer sacrifices with cattle at the proper seasons."

In the spring of the tenth year of Gaozu, the relevant officials requested that each county be ordered to regularly offer sacrifices to the Commune and Grain Spirit with sheep and pigs in spring and in the twelfth month, and that the village communes among the people each sacrifice according to their means. The edict said, "Approved."

Eighteen years later, Emperor Xiaowen ascended the throne. In the thirteenth year of his reign, he issued an edict saying, "Now the Secret Supplicant transfers faults to subordinates—I do not approve of this. From now on, abolish this practice."

At first, famous mountains and great rivers within the feudal lords’ territories were sacrificed to by the lords’ own supplicants, and the Son of Heaven’s officials did not manage them. After the states of Qi and Huainan were abolished, the Grand Supplicant was ordered to offer sacrifices at all proper seasons, following the old rites.

In that year, Emperor Wen issued an edict saying, "I have been on the throne for thirteen years, relying on the spirits of the ancestral temples and the blessings of the Commune and Grain Spirit, so that the realm is peaceful and the people have no suffering. Recently, there have been consecutive bountiful harvests—what virtue do I have to deserve such blessings? This is all the favor of the Supreme God and the various spirits. I have heard that in ancient times, when emperors received the spirits’ favor, they were sure to repay their merit. I wish to increase the sacrifices to the various spirits. Let the relevant officials deliberate: to each of the five Yong altars, add one carriage, complete with horses and harness; to the Western Altar and Qi Altar, add one carriage drawn by a yu (a type of carriage), with four yu-horses, complete with harness; to the Yellow River, the Qiu Abyss, and the Han River, add two jade tablets each; as for other sacrifices, each shall have its altar grounds enlarged, and the offerings of jade, silk, and vessels such as zu and dou shall be increased according to rank. Yet those who pray and seek blessings only attribute the fortune to me, and the people do not share in it. From now on, when the supplicants perform their rites, let them no longer pray for me."

A man of Lu, Gongsun Chen, submitted a memorial saying: "Formerly, the Qin dynasty obtained the Virtue of Water. Now the Han has inherited this mandate. According to the cycle of the Five Virtues' succession, the Han should be the Virtue of Earth. The auspicious sign of Earth's Virtue is the appearance of a yellow dragon. The calendar should be reformed, the colors of vestments changed, and the vestments should honor yellow." At that time, the Grand Commandant Zhang Cang was fond of the study of pitch pipes and calendars. He believed that the Han began with the Virtue of Water, and thus the breach of the Yellow River that destroyed the Golden Dike was the portent of Water's Virtue. The Han took winter's tenth month as the beginning of the year, and the vestments were black on the outside and red on the inside, corresponding to the Virtue of Water. He considered Gongsun Chen's theory incorrect and set the matter aside. Three years later, a yellow dragon appeared in Chengji County. Emperor Wen then summoned Gongsun Chen, appointed him as an Erudite, and had him, together with various Confucian scholars, draft plans for reforming the calendar and the colors of vestments. That summer, Emperor Wen issued an edict saying: "A strange spirit has appeared in Chengji, bringing no harm to the people, and this year there has been a bountiful harvest. I wish to perform the suburban sacrifice, to pray for blessings to the Supreme Deity and the various spirits. Let the ritual officials deliberate on the specific ceremonies, and do not conceal anything out of fear that I might be overworked." The responsible officials all said: "In ancient times, the Son of Heaven personally performed the suburban sacrifice in summer, offering sacrifices to the Supreme Deity in the suburbs, hence it was called the 'suburban sacrifice.'" Accordingly, in the summer of that year, in the fourth month, Emperor Wen for the first time went to the Five Altars at Yong to perform the suburban sacrifice, and the ceremonial robes he wore all honored red.

The following year, a man of Zhao, Xinyuan Ping, gained an audience with the emperor through his skill in observing vapors. He said: "To the northeast of Chang'an there is a spirit vapor, appearing in five colors, shaped like a man's cap. Some say the northeast is the dwelling place of spirits, and the west is their burial ground. Heaven has sent down this auspicious sign; a temple should be built to sacrifice to the Supreme Deity, to correspond with the portent." Thereupon Emperor Wen ordered the construction of the Temple of the Five Emperors at Weiyang. Within a single structure, each of the Five Emperors had his own hall, each hall having five gates, and the color of each gate matched the color of its corresponding emperor. The sacrificial offerings and ceremonies were the same as those at the Five Altars at Yong.

In the summer, in the fourth month, Emperor Wen personally went to the confluence of the Ba and Wei Rivers to perform the suburban sacrifice, offering sacrifices to the Five Emperors at Weiyang. The Temple of the Five Emperors faced the Wei River to the south, and to the north a canal was dug to channel water from Lake Pu. Torches were lit for the sacrifice, and their brilliance seemed to reach the heavens. Emperor Wen then honored Xinyuan Ping, appointing him Grand Master of the Palace, and bestowed upon him gifts amounting to a thousand catties of gold. He also sent the Erudites and Confucian scholars to excerpt relevant passages from the Six Classics, compile the "Royal Institutes," and plan and discuss the affairs of imperial tours of inspection and the feng and shan sacrifices.

When the emperor passed through Changmen, he seemed to see five people on the north side of the road, and so he established an altar for the Five Emperors directly north of where they had appeared, sacrificing to them with five sets of the Grand Offering (an ox, a sheep, and a pig).

The following year, Xinyuan Ping sent someone holding a jade cup to present it at the palace gate. Xinyuan Ping said to the emperor: "There is a vapor of precious jade floating before the palace gate." After a while, he went to look, and sure enough, someone had presented a jade cup, on which was inscribed the words "May the sovereign extend his years." Xinyuan Ping also said: "I observe that the sun will again reach the zenith at noon." After a while, the sun indeed retreated and returned to the middle of the sky. Thereupon Emperor Wen changed the reign year from the seventeenth year to the first year of a new era, and ordered the realm to hold great festive drinking.

Xinyuan Ping said: "The precious tripod of the Zhou dynasty sank in the Si River. Now the Yellow River has overflowed, connecting with the Si River. I gaze to the northeast and perceive a vapor of gold and treasure in the Fenyin region. I suspect the Zhou tripod is about to appear! The sign has manifested, but if we do not welcome it, it will not come." Thereupon Emperor Wen sent men to build a temple south of Fenyin, near the Yellow River, intending to sacrifice and invite the Zhou tripod to come forth.

Someone submitted a memorial accusing Xinyuan Ping of fraud in all his claims of vapors and spiritual phenomena. Emperor Wen turned Xinyuan Ping over to the judicial officials for trial, and ultimately executed his entire clan. From then on, Emperor Wen grew lax in matters of reforming the calendar, changing vestment colors, and spiritual affairs. The temples of the Five Emperors at Weiyang and Changmen were placed under the care of sacrificial officials, who performed the seasonal rites, but the emperor himself no longer went there.

The following year, the Xiongnu repeatedly invaded the border, and the court dispatched troops to defend and resist. In the years that followed, the harvests were somewhat poor.

After several more years, Emperor Xiaojing ascended the throne. During his sixteen-year reign, the sacrificial officials each performed their seasonal rites as usual, without any new undertakings, and this continued until the time of the present Son of Heaven (Emperor Wu).

When the present Son of Heaven (Emperor Wu) first ascended the throne, he was especially devoted to matters of ghosts and spirits and sacrifices.

In the first year of his reign (140 BCE), over sixty years had passed since the founding of the Han dynasty. The realm was at peace, and the scholar-official class all hoped the emperor would perform the feng and shan sacrifices and reform the calendar and institutions. The emperor himself also revered Confucian teachings and recruited worthy and talented men. Zhao Wan, Wang Zang, and others, by virtue of their literary abilities, became high ministers. They wished to discuss building a Hall of Light in the southern suburbs according to ancient practice, to receive the feudal lords. They drafted plans for imperial tours, the feng and shan sacrifices, reforming the calendar, and changing vestment colors, but these were not completed. Just then, Empress Dowager Dou, who revered the teachings of Huang-Lao and disliked Confucianism, sent spies to investigate, and uncovered certain illegal profit-seeking activities of Zhao Wan and his associates. She then summoned Zhao Wan and Wang Zang for interrogation, and the two committed suicide. All the projects they had initiated were abolished.

Six years later, Empress Dowager Dou passed away. The following year, the emperor summoned literary scholars such as Gongsun Hong.

After another year, the present emperor went to Yong for the first time to perform the suburban sacrifice and pay homage to the Five Altars. Thereafter, he performed the suburban sacrifice once every three years. At that time, the emperor sought out the Divine Lady and installed her in the Bofan Temple in the Shanglin Park. The Divine Lady was originally a woman from Changling. After her son died young, she herself died and became a spirit, appearing to her sister-in-law, Wanruo. Wanruo made offerings to her at home, and many people came to sacrifice to her. The Princess of Pingyuan also went to sacrifice, and later her descendants became honored and prominent. When the present emperor ascended the throne, he installed her in the palace with elaborate ceremonies. People could hear her voice speaking, but they could not see her form.

At that time, Li Shaojun also gained an audience with the emperor through his knowledge of methods for sacrificing to the Stove God, abstaining from grain, and avoiding old age. The emperor greatly respected him. Shaojun had originally been a retainer of the Marquis of Shenze, in charge of prescriptions and medicines. He concealed his age and origins, often claiming to be seventy years old, and said he could command ghosts and spirits and avoid aging. He traveled among the feudal lords with his arts, and had no wife or children. When people heard that he could command ghosts and spirits and live forever, they all vied to give him gifts, so he always had a surplus of money and clothing. People thought that he was wealthy without engaging in production, and not knowing where he came from, they believed in him all the more and competed to serve him. Shaojun was naturally skilled in the arts and adept at cleverly guessing things, which often proved true. Once, while drinking with the Marquis of Wu'an, there was a ninety-year-old man among the guests. Shaojun began to speak of places where he had hunted with the old man's grandfather. The old man, as a child, had followed his grandfather and recognized the place, astonishing all the guests. When Shaojun had an audience with the emperor, the emperor had an ancient bronze vessel and asked Shaojun about it. Shaojun said: "This vessel was placed in the Bobei Terrace in the tenth year of Duke Huan of Qi (676 BCE)." They then examined the inscription, and it was indeed from the time of Duke Huan of Qi. Everyone in the palace was stunned, thinking Shaojun was a divine man, several hundred years old. Shaojun said to the emperor: "Sacrificing to the Stove God can summon ghosts; once ghosts are summoned, cinnabar can be transformed into gold; with this gold made into vessels, one can prolong life; with prolonged life, one can see the immortals on Penglai Mountain in the sea; having seen the immortals, performing the feng and shan sacrifices will grant eternal life—this is how the Yellow Emperor did it. I once traveled on the sea and met Anqi Sheng, who ate jujubes as large as melons. Anqi Sheng is an immortal who can come and go in the Penglai Mountains. When he finds someone congenial, he appears; when not, he hides." From then on, the Son of Heaven personally began to sacrifice to the Stove God, sent alchemists to the sea to seek Anqi Sheng and others on Penglai Mountain, and began to engage in the work of transforming cinnabar and other substances into gold.

After a long time, Li Shaojun died of illness. The Son of Heaven believed that he had transformed into an immortal and departed, and had not actually died; he then sent the historiographer Kuanshu from Huangchui to study his arts. But sending people to seek Penglai Mountain and Anqi Sheng ultimately yielded no results, while increasingly more strange and magicians from the coastal regions of Yan and Qi came to discourse on matters of spirits and marvels.

A man from Boxian, Miao Ji, submitted a method for sacrificing to the Grand Unity, saying: "The most honored among the heavenly spirits is the Grand Unity, and its assistants are the Five Deities. In ancient times, the Son of Heaven sacrificed to the Grand Unity in the southeastern suburbs in spring and autumn, using the Grand Sacrifice (ox, sheep, and pig) as offerings, performing the rite for seven days, and constructing an altar, opening eight roads to connect with the ghosts and spirits." Thereupon the Son of Heaven ordered the Grand Invocator to build a shrine to the Grand Unity in the southeastern suburbs of Chang'an, and to conduct sacrifices according to Miao Ji's method at the appointed times.

Afterwards, someone submitted a memorial, saying: "In ancient times, the Son of Heaven, once every three years, used the Grand Sacrifice to offer to the triune spirits: Heaven's Unity, Earth's Unity, and Grand Unity." The Son of Heaven agreed, and ordered the Grand Invocator to preside over the sacrifices on the altar to the Grand Unity built by Miao Ji, according to the method he had described.

Later, someone else submitted a memorial, saying: "In ancient times, the Son of Heaven always held a sacrifice in spring to remove calamities and misfortunes, offering to the Yellow Deity one owl and one 'broken mirror' (a type of beast); to the Spirit of the Underworld, a sheep; to the Horse Walker, a dark male horse; to the Grand Unity, Zeshan Jun, and Earth's Longevity, an ox; to the Martial Yi Lord, dried fish; and to the Yin-Yang Envoys, one ox." The Son of Heaven ordered the sacrificial officials to be responsible for performing these rites, conducting them beside Miao Ji's altar to the Grand Unity.

Thereafter, the Son of Heaven's imperial park raised white deer, using their hides to make leather currency, in order to induce auspicious omens in response, and also cast white metal (silver coinage).

The following year, the Son of Heaven performed a suburban sacrifice at Yong, and captured a single-horned beast that resembled a doe. The responsible officials said: "Your Majesty reverently performs the suburban sacrifice, and the Supreme Deity responds to your offerings by bestowing a single-horned beast; this is likely a unicorn (qilin)." Thereupon they used it to sacrifice at the Five Altars, adding one ox to each altar as a burnt offering. They also bestowed white metal to the feudal lords, to manifest the correspondence of auspicious omens and accord with the will of Heaven.

Then the King of Jibei, believing that the Son of Heaven was about to perform the Feng and Shan sacrifices, submitted a memorial offering Mount Tai and its adjacent cities. The Son of Heaven compensated him with other counties. The King of Changshan committed a crime and was removed; the Son of Heaven enfeoffed his younger brother at Zhending to continue the sacrifices to the former king, and turned Changshan into a commandery. Thus the Five Sacred Peaks all came under the jurisdiction of the Son of Heaven.

The following year, a man from Qi, Shao Weng, gained an audience with the emperor through his arts concerning ghosts and spirits. The emperor had a beloved Consort Wang; the consort died, and Shao Weng used his arts to summon the forms of Consort Wang and the Stove God at night, which the Son of Heaven saw from within a curtain. Thereupon he enfeoffed Shao Weng as General of Literary Accomplishment, bestowed many valuables, and treated him with the rites of a guest. General of Literary Accomplishment said: "If Your Majesty wishes to communicate with the spirits, if your palaces and garments do not imitate the forms of the spirits, the spirits will not descend." So he made chariots painted with cloud vapors, and drove them on days corresponding to the cyclical signs that overcome evil spirits to expel demons. He also built the Sweet Spring Palace, and within the palace constructed a high terrace and chambers, painting on them the various spirits of Heaven, Earth, the Grand Unity, and others, and setting up sacrificial vessels, in order to summon the celestial spirits. After more than a year, his arts became increasingly ineffective, and the spirits did not arrive. So he wrote a silk text and had an ox swallow it, pretending not to know, and said that there was a strange thing in the ox's belly. After slaughtering the ox, he obtained the silk text, the words of which were extremely bizarre. The Son of Heaven recognized the handwriting on the silk text, questioned the man, and it was indeed a forged letter; so he executed General of Literary Accomplishment and kept the matter hidden.

Afterwards, he also constructed the Cypress Beam Terrace, bronze pillars, and the Immortal's Palm Receiving Dew, among other structures.

The year after the execution of General of Literary Accomplishment, the Son of Heaven fell gravely ill at Dinghu. All kinds of shamanic and medical arts were exhausted, but the illness did not improve. You Shui Fagen said that there was a shaman in Shang Commandery who, when ill, would be possessed by spirits. The emperor summoned him and placed him in the Sweet Spring Palace for sacrifices. When the illness became critical, he sent someone to consult the Spirit Lord. The Spirit Lord said: "The Son of Heaven need not worry about his illness. When the illness has somewhat improved, force yourself to come to the Sweet Spring Palace to meet with me." Thus the illness abated, and he rose and went to the Sweet Spring Palace, where he was completely cured. Thereupon he granted a general amnesty and established the Longevity Palace Spirit Lord. Among the spirits of the Longevity Palace Spirit Lord, the most honored was the Grand Unity, and his assistants included the Great Prohibition and the Director of Fate, and others like them, all attending him. They could not be seen; only their voices could be heard, sounding like ordinary people. Sometimes they departed, sometimes they arrived; when they came, there was a rustling sound like wind. They dwelt within the palace curtains. Sometimes they spoke during the day, but usually at night. The Son of had to perform a purification ceremony before entering. A shaman served as host, responsible for food and drink. Whatever the Spirit Lord said was transmitted down by the shaman. He also established the Longevity Palace and the Northern Palace, hanging feathered banners and setting out offerings to honor the Spirit Lord. Whatever the Spirit Lord said, the emperor had someone record it, naming it "the Art of the Diagrams." The things they spoke of were all matters commonly known in the world, with nothing particularly outstanding, but the Son of Heaven was secretly delighted. These matters were very secret; no one in the world knew of them.

Three years later, the responsible officials said that the reign titles should be named after auspicious omens sent down by Heaven, and should not be counted with numbers like one and two. The first reign title was called "Establishing," the second, because of the appearance of a long star, was called "Light," and the third, because of the capture of a single-horned beast during a suburban sacrifice, was called "Hunting."

The following winter, the Son of Heaven performed a suburban sacrifice at Yong, and deliberated, saying: "Now I personally sacrifice to the Supreme Deity, but the Earth Queen has not been sacrificed to; thus the rites are not complete." The responsible officials, together with the Grand Historian and the shrine official Kuanshu, discussed: "For sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, the horn of the ox should be as small as a silkworm cocoon or a chestnut. Now Your Majesty personally sacrifices to the Earth Queen; the Earth Queen should have five altars established on a round mound in a marsh, each altar using one yellow ox and the Grand Sacrifice. After the sacrifice, everything should be buried. The attendants' garments should be yellow." Thereupon the Son of Heaven then traveled east, and for the first time built a shrine to the Earth Queen on the mound at Fenyin, following the advice of Kuanshu and the others. The emperor personally looked on and bowed, the ritual being the same as that for the Supreme Deity. After the ritual was completed, the Son of Heaven then reached Xingyang before returning. When passing through Luoyang, he issued an edict, saying: "The Three Dynasties are very distant from now, and difficult to preserve. Enfeoff the descendant of Zhou with thirty li of land, calling him the Lord Zinan of Zhou, so that he may continue the sacrifices to his ancestors." That year, the Son of began to tour the commanderies and counties, gradually approaching Mount Tai.

That spring, the Marquis of Lecheng submitted a memorial recommending Luan Da. Luan Da was a retainer of the King of Jiaodong, and had originally studied under the same master as General Wencheng. Later, he became an official in charge of prescriptions and medicines for the King of Jiaodong. The Marquis of Lecheng’s elder sister was the queen of King Kang, but she had no sons. After King Kang died, the son of another concubine was established as king. The queen of King Kang, however, had engaged in licentious behavior and was at odds with the king; they used magical arts to harm each other. When the queen of King Kang heard that Wencheng had died, she wished to curry favor with the emperor, so she sent Luan Da through the Marquis of Lecheng to seek an audience with the emperor and discuss magical arts. After the Son of Heaven had executed Wencheng, he regretted that he had died too soon and lamented that he had not fully obtained his arts. When he saw Luan Da, he was overjoyed. Luan Da was tall and handsome, spoke with great strategy, and dared to make bold claims without hesitation. Luan Da said: “I often traveled to and from the sea, and met people like An Qisheng and Xianmen. They only considered me lowly and untrustworthy. They also thought King Kang was merely a feudal lord, not worthy of being taught the arts. I repeatedly spoke to King Kang, but he did not employ me. My master said: ‘Gold can be refined, the breaches of the Yellow River can be blocked, the elixir of immortality can be obtained, and immortals can be summoned.’ Yet I fear that I will be executed like Wencheng, and then the fangshi will all fall silent—who would dare to speak of magical arts again!” The emperor said: “Wencheng died from eating horse liver. If you can truly cultivate his arts, what would I begrudge you?” Luan Da said: “My master does not seek from others; rather, others seek him. If Your Majesty must summon them, you must honor their envoy, let the envoy have relatives, treat him with the rites of a guest, do not slight him, and let him wear the seals of his offices, only then can you communicate with the spirits. Whether the spirits are willing to come or not depends on the circumstances. Only when the envoy’s status is exalted can the spirits be summoned.” Then the emperor had him test a minor magical art: making chess pieces fight each other, and the chess pieces indeed collided and attacked each other on their own.

At this time, the emperor was worried about the breaches of the Yellow River, and gold had not yet been refined, so he appointed Luan Da as General of the Five Benefits. After a little over a month, he received four official seals, wearing the seals of General of Heavenly Scholars, General of Earthly Scholars, and General of Great Communication. The emperor issued an edict to the imperial secretary, saying: “In ancient times, Yu dredged the nine rivers and opened the four waterways. Recently, the Yellow River’s waters have spread to highlands, and the labor of repairing the dikes has been unending. I have ruled the world for twenty-eight years. Heaven seems to wish to send me a scholar, and Luan Da can comprehend the will of Heaven. The Qian hexagram says ‘The flying dragon is in the heavens,’ and ‘The wild goose gradually advances to the shore.’ My heart hopes to align with this. I enfeoff the General of Earthly Scholars, Luan Da, as Marquis of Letong, with a fief of two thousand households.” He granted him a marquis’s superior mansion and one thousand servants. From the imperial palace, he allocated chariots, horses, tents, curtains, and utensils to fill his household. He also married Princess Weichang to him, gave him ten thousand catties of gold, and changed her title to Princess Dangli. The Son of Heaven personally visited the mansion of General of the Five Benefits. Envoys sent to inquire and supply goods were unbroken on the road. From the Grand Princess and generals down, all held banquets at his home and presented gifts. Then the Son of Heaven carved another jade seal called “Heavenly Way General,” and sent an envoy dressed in feathered robes to stand on white rushes at night. General of the Five Benefits also dressed in feathered robes and stood on white rushes at night to receive the seal, thereby indicating that he was not treated as a subject. And the one who wore the “Heavenly Way” seal would act as the Son of Heaven’s guide to the spirits. So General of the Five Benefits often performed sacrifices at home at night, hoping to summon the spirits. The spirits did not come, but a hundred ghosts gathered, and he was quite able to command them. Later, he packed his bags and went east into the sea to seek his master. Within a few months of being received in audience, Luan Da wore six official seals, his honor shaking the world, and the coastal people of Yan and Qi all clutched their wrists and recommended themselves, claiming to have secret arts to become immortals.

That summer, in the sixth month, the shaman Jin from Fenyin, while performing sacrifices for the people beside the Houtu shrine at Weichui, saw the ground shaped like a hook. Digging it open, he obtained a tripod. This tripod was much larger than ordinary tripods, with patterns on it but no inscriptions. Finding it strange, he reported it to the officials. The officials reported it to the Grand Administrator of Hedong, Sheng, and Sheng reported the matter. The Son of Heaven sent envoys to verify that the shaman’s obtaining of the tripod was not fraudulent, then used ritual to sacrifice, welcomed the tripod to the Ganquan Palace, and the retinue proceeded ahead as the emperor presented offerings. When they reached Mount Zhong, the weather was clear, and a yellow cloud covered them. A female elk passed by, and the emperor personally shot it, then used it for sacrifice. When they arrived at Chang’an, the dukes and high ministers all discussed and requested to honor the precious tripod. The Son of Heaven said: “Recently, the Yellow River has flooded, and harvests have been poor for years, so I toured and sacrificed to Houtu, praying for the growth of grain for the people. This year’s harvest is abundant, but I have not yet made a repayment. Why has the tripod appeared?” The supervising officials all said: “We have heard that in ancient times, when Tai Di arose, he cast a divine tripod. One tripod represented unity, and all things in heaven and earth were subsumed under it. The Yellow Emperor cast three precious tripods, symbolizing heaven, earth, and humanity. Yu collected the metals of the nine provinces and cast nine tripods. They were all used to cook offerings and sacrifice to the sovereigns on high and the spirits. When a sage era arose, they flourished, and the tripods moved to the Xia and Shang dynasties. When the virtue of the Zhou dynasty declined, and the altar of Song was destroyed, the tripods sank and were hidden, unseen. The Book of Odes says: ‘From the hall to the steps, from the sheep to the ox; great tripods and small tripods, neither clamorous nor arrogant, seeking longevity and good fortune.’ Now the precious tripod has arrived at Ganquan Palace, with a luster moist and smooth like a dragon’s transformation, receiving boundless blessings. This matches the yellow and white clouds that descended and covered us at Mount Zhong, like a beast acting as a portent, gathered with a great bow and four arrows at the altar, returning the sacrifice and great offering. Only those who receive the Mandate of Heaven as emperors understand its meaning in their hearts and have virtue that aligns with it. The precious tripod should be presented in the ancestral temple and stored in the imperial court, to correspond to the bright response.” The emperor issued an edict saying: “Approved.”

Those who entered the sea to seek Penglai said that Penglai was not far, but the reason they could not reach it was probably because they had not seen its vapor. The emperor then sent officials who observed vapors to watch for that vapor.

That autumn, the emperor went to Yong and was about to perform the suburban sacrifice. Someone said: “The Five Emperors are the assistants of Tai Yi. One should establish Tai Yi and have the emperor personally perform the suburban sacrifice.” The emperor hesitated. A man of Qi, Gongsun Qing, said: “This year a precious cauldron was obtained. This winter, on the first day of the month, xinsi, at dawn, it was the winter solstice, the same as in the time of the Yellow Emperor.” Gongsun Qing had a book inscribed on bamboo slips, saying: “The Yellow Emperor obtained a precious cauldron at Wanqu and consulted Guiyu Qu. Guiyu Qu answered, saying: ‘The Emperor obtained the precious cauldron and the divine tally. On this year, the day jiyou, at dawn, it was the winter solstice, and he obtained the pattern of Heaven and Earth, ending and beginning again.’ Then the Yellow Emperor calculated the movements of the sun and moon. Thereafter, every twenty years, the dawn of the first day again coincided with the winter solstice. He made twenty calculations in all, covering three hundred and eighty years, and then the Yellow Emperor became an immortal and ascended to Heaven.” Gongsun Qing wanted to present this through Suo Zhong. Suo Zhong examined his book and found it not canonical; he suspected it was wild talk and declined, saying: “The matter of the precious cauldron is already settled. What use is there for this?” Gongsun Qing then presented it through a favored minister. The emperor was greatly pleased and summoned Gongsun Qing for questioning. Gongsun Qing replied: “This book was obtained from Master Shen, who has already died.” The emperor said: “What kind of man was Master Shen?” Gongsun Qing said: “Master Shen was a man of Qi. He associated with An Qisheng and received the teachings of the Yellow Emperor. There were no written records, only this book about the cauldron. The book says: ‘The Han dynasty arises and again matches the time of the Yellow Emperor.’ It says: ‘The sage of Han will be a grandson or great-grandson of Gaozu. The precious cauldron will appear and communicate with the spirits, and the Feng and Shan sacrifices will be performed. Of the seventy-two kings who performed the Feng and Shan, only the Yellow Emperor was able to go up Mount Tai to perform the Feng.’ Master Shen said: ‘The Han sovereign should also go up Mount Tai to perform the Feng. Performing the Feng on Mount Tai will enable him to become an immortal and ascend to Heaven. In the time of the Yellow Emperor, there were ten thousand feudal lords, and the lands of the spirits numbered seven thousand. Among the famous mountains of the world, there were eight, three of which were in barbarian lands, and five in the Central Plain. The five mountains in the Central Plain were Hua Shan, Shou Shan, Tai Shi Shan, Tai Shan, and Donglai Shan. These five mountains were where the Yellow Emperor often traveled and met with the spirits. The Yellow Emperor combined warfare with the study of the Way of the immortals. Fearing that the people would not follow his Way, he executed those who did not revere the spirits. Only after more than a hundred years was he able to communicate with the spirits. The Yellow Emperor performed the suburban sacrifice to the Supreme God at Yong and stayed there for three months. Guiyu Qu, styled Da Hong, died and was buried at Yong, so Hong Zhong is there. Later, the Yellow Emperor received the ten thousand spirits at Ming Ting. Ming Ting is Gan Quan. The so-called Han Men is Gu Kou. The Yellow Emperor mined copper from Shou Shan and cast a precious cauldron at the foot of Jing Shan. When the cauldron was cast, a dragon descended with its beard hanging down to welcome the Yellow Emperor. The Yellow Emperor mounted the dragon, and his ministers and harem followers, more than seventy people, also mounted, and then the dragon ascended. The remaining minor officials could not mount and all grabbed hold of the dragon’s beard. The beard was pulled out and they fell down, and the Yellow Emperor’s bow fell as well. The people looked up, seeing the Yellow Emperor already ascended, and they embraced his bow and the dragon’s beard, wailing. Therefore later generations called that place Ding Hu, and called the bow Wu Hao.’” Then the Son of Heaven said: “Alas! If I could be like the Yellow Emperor, I would regard abandoning my wife and children as easily as taking off a shoe.” Thereupon he appointed Gongsun Qing as a Gentleman-attendant and sent him eastward to wait for the spirits at Tai Shi Shan.

The emperor then went to Yong county to perform the suburban sacrifice, then traveled westward to Longxi, and further west ascended Kongtong Mountain, and then went to Gan Quan Palace. He ordered the ritual officials, such as Kuan Shu, to build an altar for Tai Yi. The altar was modeled after the Tai Yi altar of Bo Ji, with three levels. The altars of the Five Emperors surrounded it below, each arranged according to its direction. The altar of the Yellow Emperor was to the southwest, and eight spirit-paths were opened. The offerings used for the Tai Yi altar were the same as those for the Yong county altar of the One Zhi, with the addition of sweet wine, dates, dried meat, and the like, and one black ox was killed as a sacrifice for the meat stand. For the Five Emperors’ altars, only meat stands and sweet wine were offered. The square ground below was used for sacrificing to the attendant spirits of the multitude of gods and to the Big Dipper. After the sacrifices, the leftover meat was all burned. The ox used for sacrifice was white; a deer was placed inside the ox, and a pig inside the deer, all soaked in water. For sacrificing to the sun, an ox was used; for the moon, a sheep or a pig. The prayer officials and sacrificers for Tai Yi wore purple embroidered robes. The Five Emperors each wore robes of the color corresponding to their direction, the sun wore red, and the moon wore white.

On the day xinsi, the first day of the eleventh month, at dawn of the winter solstice, the Son of Heaven began to go to the outskirts to worship Tai Yi. In the morning, he paid homage to the sun, and in the evening, he sacrificed to the moon, performing the bowing salute; the ceremony for paying respects to Tai Yi was the same as the suburban sacrifice at Yong. The prayer officer recited: “Heaven first bestowed the precious cauldron and the divine tally on the Emperor, again and again, ending and beginning. The Emperor respectfully pays homage and sacrifices.” The emperor wore yellow robes. During the sacrifice, many torches were lit on the altar, and cooking vessels were placed beside it. The supervising officials said: “Light appeared on the altar.” The dukes and ministers said: “The Emperor began the suburban sacrifice to Tai Yi at Yunyang. The supervising officials presented jade discs and sacrificial animals. That night, there was a fine light; by day, a yellow cloud rose up to Heaven.” The Grand Historian and the ritual official Kuan Shu and others said: “The spirits have bestowed blessings and auspicious signs. One should establish the Tai Zhi altar according to this area of light to manifest Heaven’s intent. Order the Grand Prayer to preside, offering sacrifices between autumn and the twelfth month. The Son of Heaven should perform the suburban sacrifice once every three years.”

That autumn, to punish the Southern Yue, a prayer was offered to Tai Yi. A banner was made using mu jing wood, painted with the sun, moon, Big Dipper, and ascending dragon, symbolizing the three stars of Tai Yi, serving as Tai Yi’s vanguard, and named the “Spirit Banner.” When praying for military affairs, the Grand Historian held it and pointed it toward the state being attacked. Meanwhile, the Five Benefits General, upon receiving his orders, dared not go to sea and went to Mount Tai to perform sacrifices. The emperor sent people to follow and verify, but in reality, they saw nothing. The Five Benefits General falsely claimed to have seen his teacher; his arts were exhausted and mostly ineffective. The emperor then killed the Five Benefits General.

That winter, Gongsun Qing waited for the immortals at Henan. He said he had seen the footprints of an immortal on the city wall of Goushi, and that something like a pheasant had come and gone on the wall. The Son of Heaven personally went to Goushi to view the footprints. He asked Gongsun Qing: “Are you not imitating Wen Cheng and the Five Benefits?” Gongsun Qing said: “The immortals do not seek out the human ruler; it is the human ruler who seeks them. If the way of seeking them is not somewhat relaxed, the immortals will not come. Talking about matters of immortals seems wild and absurd, but over months and years, they can be summoned.” Thus all the commanderies and kingdoms repaired roads, renovated temples, famous mountains, and spirit shrines, hoping for the emperor’s visit.

That spring, after the destruction of the Southern Yue, the emperor had a favored minister, Li Yannian, who was summoned for his skill in music. The emperor greatly appreciated him and issued an edict for the dukes and ministers to discuss, saying: “Among the people’s sacrifices, there is still drum and dance music. Now the suburban sacrifice has no music—is this fitting?” The dukes and ministers said: “In ancient times, sacrifices to Heaven and Earth all had music, so that the spirits could receive the offerings.” Someone said: “The Grand Emperor had the Plain Maiden play a fifty-stringed zither. The sound was so sorrowful that the Grand Emperor could not bear it, so he broke the zither into twenty-five strings.” Then, for the victory celebrations of the Southern Yue war, a sacrifice was offered to Tai Yi and Hou Tu, and for the first time, music and dance were used. Additional singing boys were recruited, and the making of twenty-five-stringed zithers, as well as the kong hou and qin se, began from this time.

The following winter, the emperor deliberated, saying: “In ancient times, one first organized the army, and then performed the Feng and Shan sacrifices.” Then he went north to inspect Shuofang, leading more than a hundred thousand troops. On the return, he sacrificed at the mausoleum of the Yellow Emperor at Qiao Shan, and disbanded the army at Xuru. The emperor said: “I have heard that the Yellow Emperor did not die. Now there is a tomb—why is this?” Someone replied: “The Yellow Emperor had already become an immortal and ascended to Heaven. His ministers buried his robes and cap.” Upon reaching Gan Quan, because he was about to go to Mount Tai to perform the Feng and Shan, he first sacrificed to Tai Yi.

Since the acquisition of the precious tripod, the emperor discussed with the dukes, ministers, and the scholars the matter of the feng and shan sacrifices. These sacrifices had been performed rarely, and had been discontinued for so long that no one knew their rituals. The scholars gleaned from the Book of Documents, the Rites of Zhou, and the Royal Institutes such matters as the looking-offering and the shooting of oxen. A man of Qi, Ding Gong, over ninety years old, said: "The feng and shan sacrifices are in accord with the name of immortality. The First Emperor of Qin was unable to ascend Mount Tai to perform the feng sacrifice. If Your Majesty must go up, if you go up a little without wind or rain, you can go up and perform the feng sacrifice." The emperor then ordered the scholars to practice shooting oxen and to draft the rituals for the feng and shan sacrifices. After several years, the time for performance drew near. The Son of Heaven had already heard the words of Gongsun Qing and the fangshi, and believed that from the time of the Yellow Emperor onward, those who performed the feng and shan sacrifices all summoned strange beings and communicated with the spirits. He wished to emulate the Yellow Emperor and those before him in summoning the immortals and the fangshi of Penglai, to make his virtue surpass the mundane world, to match the virtue of the Nine Sovereigns, and also to adopt Confucian teachings for embellishment. The Confucian scholars could neither clarify the matter of the feng and shan sacrifices, nor could they expound upon them because they were constrained by the ancient texts of the Odes and Documents. The emperor showed the sacrificial vessels for the feng and shan sacrifices to the scholars; some scholars said, "They are different from antiquity." Xu Yan also said, "The scholars of the Grand Master of Ceremonies perform the rites not as well as those of Lu." Zhou Ba gathered a group to plan the feng and shan sacrifice, so the emperor dismissed Xu Yan and Zhou Ba, and dismissed all the Confucian scholars, no longer employing them.

In the third month, the emperor traveled east to Shishi and ascended Mount Taishi, the Central Marchmount. The attending officials at the foot of the mountain heard a sound like shouts of "Long live!" They asked those on the mountain, who said they had not shouted; they asked those at the foot of the mountain, who also said they had not shouted. Thereupon, three hundred households were enfeoffed to Mount Taishi for sacrificial offerings, naming it the Chonggao Yi. Going east, he ascended Mount Tai. The leaves and grasses on Mount Tai had not yet grown, so he sent people to transport stones to the top of Mount Tai and erect them.

The emperor then toured east along the sea, performing sacrifices and worshipping the Eight Spirits. Men of Qi submitted memorials discussing spirits, strange beings, and marvelous recipes by the tens of thousands, but none were effective. Thereupon, he increased the number of ships, ordering several thousand people who discussed the spirits and mountains in the sea to go and seek the immortals of Penglai. Gongsun Qing, holding the credentials, often went ahead to wait at famous mountains. When he reached Donglai, he said that at night he saw a giant, several tens of feet tall; when approached, it disappeared. He saw its footprints, which were extremely large, resembling those of birds and beasts. Among the ministers, some said they saw an old man leading a dog, who said, "I wish to see the Great Lord," and then suddenly disappeared. When the emperor saw the large footprints, he was initially skeptical, but when the ministers spoke of the old man, he became very convinced that it was an immortal. He stayed at the sea, providing post-horses for the fangshi, and secretly sent several thousand people to seek the immortals.

In the fourth month, he returned to Fenggao. The emperor considered that the various accounts of the feng and shan sacrifices by the scholars and fangshi differed and were not in accord with reason, making them difficult to implement. The Son of Heaven went to Liangfu and performed the shan sacrifice to the Earth Spirit. On the day of Yimao, he ordered the attendant Confucian scholars to wear leather caps and hold tablets, and to perform the shooting of oxen. He performed the feng sacrifice east of Mount Tai, using the same rites as the suburban sacrifice to Taiyi. The feng altar was one zhang and two chi wide, nine chi high, and beneath it was a jade tablet with writings, the contents of which were kept secret. After the rites were completed, the Son of Heaven alone, together with the attendant and commandant of the chariots, Zihou, ascended Mount Tai and also performed the feng sacrifice. These matters were all kept secret. The next day, they descended by the northern slope. On the day of Bingchen, he performed the shan sacrifice at Mount Suran, northeast of the foot of Mount Tai, using the same rites as the sacrifice to Houtu. The Son of Heaven personally performed the worship, wearing yellow robes and using music throughout. They used three-stemmed mao grass from the Jiang-Huai region as the god's mat. They mixed five-colored earth and added it to the feng altar. They released the strange beasts, flying birds, and white pheasants tributed from distant regions, specially increasing the rituals. Rhinoceroses, cattle, and elephants were not used. All went to Mount Tai to sacrifice to Houtu. During the feng and shan sacrifices, there seemed to be light at night, and during the day, white clouds rose from the feng altar.

When the Son of Heaven returned from the shan sacrifice site, he sat in the Bright Hall, and the ministers took turns offering congratulations. Thereupon, he issued an edict to the Imperial Secretary, saying: "I, with my insignificant person, have inherited the supreme position, ever diligent and fearful of being unequal to the task. My virtue is meager, and I am unclear on rites and music. When I repaired the shrine to Taiyi, there seemed to be auspicious light appearing, faintly as if seen; I was moved by strange beings, and wished to stop but dared not. Thereupon, I ascended Mount Tai for the feng sacrifice, reached Liangfu, and then performed the shan sacrifice at Mount Suran. Renewing myself, I together with the scholar-officials inaugurate a new era. Grant to the common people each hundred households one ox and ten shi of wine; add grants to those aged eighty and above and to widows and orphans, each with two bolts of cloth and silk. Exempt the counties of Bo, Fenggao, Sheqiu, and Licheng from taxes; they need not pay this year's land tax. Grant a general amnesty under heaven, like the amnesty on the day of Yimao. The places passed through shall no longer have corvée labor. Matters that occurred two years before shall no longer be investigated or punished." He also issued an edict saying: "In ancient times, the Son of Heaven made a tour of inspection every five years, going to Mount Tai for sacrifices, and the feudal lords had places to come for audience. Order the feudal lords each to build residences at the foot of Mount Tai."

After the Son of Heaven had performed the feng and shan sacrifices on Mount Tai, without wind or rain disaster, the fangshi again said that the immortals of Penglai and such seemed to be summonable. The emperor then gladly hoped to meet them, so he again went east to the sea to gaze, hoping to meet the immortals of Penglai. The commandant of the chariots, Zihou, suddenly fell ill and died within a day. The emperor then departed, followed the coast north, reached Jieshi, inspected Liaoxi, passed through the northern border to Jiuyuan. In the fifth month, he returned to Ganquan. The responsible officials said that the year when the precious tripod appeared was designated as the Yuanding year, and this year was designated as the Yuanfeng first year.

That autumn, a comet appeared in the Dongjing constellation. After ten-some days, another comet appeared in the Sanneng constellation. Wang Shuo, a gazer of vapors, said: "When I observed, I only saw the Star of Fill appear like a melon, and after the time of a meal, it disappeared again." The responsible officials all said: "Your Majesty has established the Han dynasty's feng and shan sacrifices; heaven repays this with a star of virtue."

The next winter, he performed the suburban sacrifice to the Five Thearchs at Yong. Upon returning, he worshipped Taiyi. The liturgist's speech said: "The star of virtue is bright and manifest; this is an auspicious sign. The star of longevity appears repeatedly, its radiance shining. The star of trust appears clearly; the emperor respectfully thanks the sacrifice of the Grand Supplicator."

That spring, Gongsun Qing said that at Donglai Mountain he had seen a spirit, who seemed to say, "I wish to see the Son of Heaven." The Son of Heaven then went to Shishi city and appointed Gongsun Qing as a Grand Master of the Palace. Thereupon, he went to Donglai, stayed for several days, but saw nothing, only the footprints of a giant. He again sent several thousand fangshi to seek spirits and strange beings and to gather lingzhi and magical herbs. This year there was a drought. Thereupon, since the Son of Heaven had traveled without a specific purpose, he prayed at Wanli Sha, and on the way performed sacrifices at Mount Tai. On the return journey, he reached Huzi Kou, personally supervised the blocking of the Yellow River breach, stayed for two days, sank offerings into the river, and then departed. He sent two high officials to lead troops to block the breach, dug two channels, and restored the old course from the time of Yu.

At this time, the two Yue regions had already been conquered. A man of Yue, Yong Zhi, said: "The customs of the Yue people are to believe in spirits. Their sacrifices all allow them to see spirits, and they have repeatedly been effective. In former times, the King of Dongou revered spirits and lived to be one hundred and sixty years old. Later generations were negligent, so they declined." Thereupon, the emperor ordered Yue shamans to establish Yue shamanic shrines, setting up altars without mounds, also sacrificing to the Heavenly God, the Supreme Thearch, and the hundred spirits, and using chicken bones for divination. The emperor believed in this, and the Yue practice of chicken-bone divination began to be used from then on.

Gongsun Qing said: "The immortals can be seen, but the emperor's previous actions were too hasty, so he did not see them. Now, Your Majesty can build a viewing tower, like the one at Shishi city, set out dried meat and dates, and the spirit should be able to be summoned. Moreover, the immortals like to dwell in towers." Thereupon, the emperor ordered the construction of the Feilian Tower and the Gui Tower in Chang'an, and the Yi Yanshou Tower at Ganquan Palace, and sent Gongsun Qing, holding credentials, to prepare offerings and await the spirits. He also built the Tongtianjing Terrace, setting up sacrificial vessels beneath the terrace, intending to summon the immortals and such beings. At this time, Ganquan Palace also built a front hall, and began to expand the various palaces and chambers. In the summer, lingzhi grew in the chambers of the hall. Because the Son of Heaven had blocked the Yellow River breach and built the Tongtian Terrace, and seemed to see spirit light and clouds, he issued an edict saying: "In the chambers of Ganquan Palace, lingzhi with nine stems has grown. Grant a general amnesty under heaven, and exempt from corvée labor."

The next year, he attacked Chaoxian (Korea). In the summer, a drought occurred. Gongsun Qing said: "During the time of the Yellow Emperor, when he performed the feng sacrifice, there was a great drought. This was to allow the feng earth to dry thoroughly, and it lasted three years." The emperor then issued an edict saying: "The drought, I think, is to allow the feng earth to dry. It is fitting to order the whole realm to reverently sacrifice to the Spirit Star."

The next year, the emperor performed the suburban sacrifice at Yong, opened the Huizhong Road, and toured along it. In the spring, he reached Mingze, and then returned via Xihe.

The following winter, the emperor made a tour of inspection in the Southern Commandery. He arrived at Jiangling and then proceeded eastward. He ascended and performed sacrifices to Mount Tianzhu in Qian County, designating it as the Southern Marchmount. Then, taking a boat, he followed the Yangtze River downstream, setting out from Xunyang and arriving at Zongyang. Passing through Lake Pengli, he offered sacrifices to the famous mountains and great rivers along the way. Going north, he reached Langya Commandery and traveled along the seacoast. In mid-fourth month, he arrived at Fenggao County to prepare for the repairs and sacrifices of the feng and shan ceremonies.

At first, the Son of Heaven had performed the feng sacrifice on Mount Tai. At the northeastern foot of Mount Tai there had formerly been an ancient site for the Bright Hall, but its terrain was rugged and not open. The emperor wished to build a Bright Hall near Fenggao County, but he was unclear about its shape and dimensions. A man from Jinan named Gongxian Dai presented a diagram of the Bright Hall from the time of the Yellow Emperor. In the diagram of the Bright Hall, there was a single hall with no walls on four sides, roofed with thatch. It was surrounded by a water channel, and palace walls encircled it, forming covered passageways. Above there was a tower. One entered from the southwest, and this entrance was named "Kunlun." The Son of Heaven entered through it to perform sacrifices to the Supreme Sovereign. Thereupon the emperor ordered that the Bright Hall be built on the banks of the Wen River in Fenggao County, according to Gongxian Dai's diagram. Five years later, when the time came for the revised feng sacrifice, the Supreme One and the Five Emperors were sacrificed to in the upper hall of the Bright Hall, with the spirit tablet of the Exalted Emperor placed as their associate. In the lower chamber, sacrifices were offered to the Sovereign of the Soil, using twenty full sets of sacrificial victims. The Son of Heaven entered through the Kunlun passage and began to perform the Bright Hall sacrifice according to the suburban sacrifice ritual. After the ceremony was completed, a burnt offering was made below the hall. The emperor then ascended Mount Tai and conducted his own secret sacrifices at the summit. Below Mount Tai, sacrifices were offered to the Five Emperors, each according to his directional position. The Yellow Emperor was sacrificed to together with the Red Emperor, and the responsible officials assisted in the sacrifices. Torches were lit on the mountain, and all below the mountain responded in kind.

Two years after this, on the first day of the eleventh month, which was the winter solstice, those who calculated the calendar deemed this day to be the starting point of the calendar. The Son of Heaven personally came to Mount Tai. On this day, the first day of the eleventh month, at the winter solstice, he sacrificed to the Supreme Sovereign in the Bright Hall, but did not perform the feng and shan ceremonies. The prayer said: "Heaven grants to the Emperor the Grand Primordial Magic Tally, which revolves and begins anew. The Emperor reverently sacrifices to the Supreme One." He then went east to the seacoast to investigate those who had gone to sea seeking immortals and the various magicians seeking spirits, but none produced results. Nevertheless, the court dispatched them in even greater numbers, hoping to encounter the immortals.

On the day yiyou of the eleventh month, the Boliang Terrace caught fire. On the first day of the twelfth month, the emperor personally went to Mount Gaoli to perform the shan sacrifice, offering sacrifices to the Sovereign of the Soil. He then went to the shores of the Bohai Sea, intending to make a distant sacrifice to the immortal mountains such as Penglai, hoping to reach the dwellings of the immortals.

After the emperor returned, because of the fire at the Boliang Terrace, he received audiences and reports at the Ganquan Palace. Gongsun Qing said: "When the Yellow Emperor completed the Qingling Terrace, it was burned down by fire after twelve days. The Yellow Emperor then built the Mingting. The Mingting is the Ganquan Palace." Many of the magicians also said that ancient emperors and kings had established their capitals at Ganquan. Thereafter the Son of Heaven again received the feudal lords at Ganquan Palace and built residences for the feudal lords at Ganquan. Yongzhi then said: "The custom of the Yue people is that after a fire, when rebuilding a house, it must be made larger than before, to suppress the fire." Thus the Jianzhang Palace was built, with a scale of a thousand gates and ten thousand doors. Its front hall was higher than that of the Weiyang Palace. To its east was the Phoenix Watchtower, over twenty zhang high. To its west was the Tangzhong, with a tiger enclosure several tens of li in size. To its north was built a great pond. The Jian Terrace was over twenty zhang high, and it was named the Taiye Pond. In the pond were Penglai, Fangzhang, Yingzhou, and Huliang, imitating the immortal mountains, turtles, and fish of the sea. To its south were the Jade Hall, the Jasper Gate, and structures shaped like great birds. The Sheaming Terrace and the Jinggan Tower were also built, each fifty zhang high, connected by covered passageways for chariots.

In summer, the Han dynasty revised the calendar, making the first month the beginning of the year. Yellow was honored as the color, and official titles and seals were changed to have five characters. This year was designated as the first year of the Taichu era. In this year, a western expedition was launched against Dayuan. A great plague of locusts occurred. Lady Ding and Yu Chu of Luoyang and others used magical arts to curse the Xiongnu and Dayuan.

The following year, the responsible officials reported that the five altars at Yong had not been provided with sacrificial victims and offerings, and that the fragrant preparations were also incomplete. Thereupon the director of sacrifices was ordered to present the calf victims and offerings required for the five altars, choosing the colors according to the principle of the Five Phases overcoming one another, and to substitute wooden horses for live horses. Only at the fifth month sacrifice were live horses used, and when the emperor personally performed the suburban sacrifice, live horses were also used. As for the sacrifices to the famous mountains and great rivers that required horses, all were replaced with wooden horses. Only when the emperor passed by on tour were live horses used. Other rituals remained as before.

The following year, the emperor went eastward to tour the coast and investigate matters concerning the immortals, but nothing came of it. Some magicians said: "In the time of the Yellow Emperor, five cities and twelve towers were built. At a place called Zhiqi, he awaited the spirits and named it 'Yingnian'." The emperor permitted the magicians to build according to their words and named it 'Mingnian'. The emperor personally performed reverent sacrifices to the Supreme Sovereign.

Gongxian Dai said: "Although the Yellow Emperor performed the feng sacrifice at Mount Tai, Feng Hou, Feng Ju, and Qi Bo caused the Yellow Emperor to perform the feng sacrifice at East Mount Tai and the shan sacrifice at Mount Fan, in accordance with the celestial tally, and only then did he attain immortality." The Son of Heaven had already ordered the sacrificial utensils to be prepared. When he reached East Mount Tai, he found that this mountain was low and small, not commensurate with its reputation. He then ordered the director of sacrifices to perform sacrifices there, but did not perform the feng sacrifice. Thereafter, he had Gongxian Dai preside over the sacrifices and await the spirits. In summer, he returned to Mount Tai and performed the revised feng sacrifice according to the ceremony of five years earlier, and added the shan sacrifice at Mount Shilü. Mount Shilü is south of the foot of Mount Tai. Many of the magicians said this was the dwelling of the immortals, so the emperor personally performed the shan sacrifice there.

Five years after this, he again went to Mount Tai to perform the revised feng sacrifice. On his return journey, he sacrificed to Mount Heng.

The sacrifices established by the present emperor were as follows: to the Supreme One and the Sovereign of the Soil, he personally performed the suburban sacrifice once every three years, and established the Han dynasty's feng and shan system, performing the revised feng sacrifice once every five years. The sacrifices to Boji's Supreme One, as well as the three-in-one, the Dark Sheep, the Horse March, and the Red Star—these five sacrifices—were performed in due season by the director of sacrifices under Kuanshu's supervision. Altogether there were six sacrifices, all presided over by the Grand Supplicator. As for the eight spirits and various other spirits, as well as the Mingnian, Mount Fan, and other named sacrifices, they were performed when the emperor passed by on tour, and ceased when he left. The sacrifices established by the magicians were each presided over by themselves; when these persons died, the sacrifices ceased, and the director of sacrifices was not responsible. All other sacrifices remained as before. The present emperor performed the feng and shan sacrifices. In the twelve years that followed, his travels covered the Five Marchmounts and the Four Rivers. But the magicians who awaited the spirits and sacrificed, and those who went to sea seeking Penglai, never produced results. And Gongsun Qing, who awaited the immortals, still used the giant's footprints to explain matters, but without effect. The Son of Heaven gradually grew weary of the magicians' preposterous and pedantic talk, but he still kept them in his favor without breaking off relations, hoping to encounter a true immortal. From this time on, those who discoursed on immortals and sacrifices became even more numerous, but their results could be foreseen.

The Grand Historian says: I followed the emperor in his tours to perform sacrifices to the gods of heaven and earth and to the famous mountains and great rivers, and I participated in the feng and shan ceremonies. I entered the Shou Palace to attend the sacrifices and listen to the spirit utterances, and I carefully observed the intentions of the magicians and the directors of sacrifices. Then, upon returning, I set forth in order the affairs of sacrifices to ghosts and spirits from ancient times, comprehensively revealing their outer forms and inner realities. Future gentlemen may look upon them. As for the detailed regulations concerning sacrificial victims and jade and silk, and the rituals of offering and repaying the spirits, these are recorded by the responsible officials.

The Ritual Classic records "ascending to the center," and the Book of Documents speaks of "arranging the various sacrifices." These are the great ceremonies of ancient and modern times, the achievements of emperors and kings. Ascending Mount Tai for the feng sacrifice to report to Heaven, and performing the shan sacrifice below the mountain to purify the Earth—the fame spreads, the merit fills all, and it is recorded on golden seals and stone tablets. The Han dynasty inherited the work of its predecessors, and these rituals were not lost. The Immortal Gate and the Mount Su, extol the beauty and inscribe the achievements.