Treatise on Rivers and Canals, Seventh
The "Book of Xia" records: Yu the Great controlled the floodwaters for thirteen years, passing by his own home without entering. On land he rode in a carriage; on water he traveled by boat; on muddy ground he used a wooden sledge; on mountain paths he wore shoes with iron spikes. He divided the nine provinces, followed the mountain ranges to dredge the rivers, and determined tributes and taxes based on the condition of the land. He opened up nine great roads, built dikes for the nine great marshes, and surveyed the nine great mountains. Yet the Yellow River frequently overflowed and caused disasters, and its harm to the Central Plains was especially severe. Therefore Yu made controlling the Yellow River his primary task. He then dredged the Yellow River from Jishi Mountain, passing through Longmen, south to Huayin, eastward down to Dizhu Mountain, reaching Mengjin and the point where the Luo River joins, all the way to Dapi Mountain. Yu believed that the upper reaches of the Yellow River were high in elevation, with swift and violent currents, making it difficult for the water to flow smoothly on the plains, causing repeated disasters. So he cut two channels to divert the Yellow River. To the north he led the water to high ground, passing through the Jiang River, flowing into Dalu Marsh, then dividing into nine tributaries, which converged into the Nihe River and emptied into the Bohai Sea. The nine great rivers were all dredged, the nine great marshes were all regulated, and the lands of Huaxia were at peace. Yu’s achievements extended through the three dynasties of Xia, Shang, and Zhou.
From then on, below Xingyang, water was diverted from the Yellow River to flow southeast, forming the Honggou Canal, which connected the states of Song, Zheng, Chen, Cai, Cao, and Wei, and converged with the Ji River, Ru River, Huai River, and Si River. In the Chu region, canals were cut to the west connecting the Han River and the Yunmeng Marsh area, and to the east connecting the Yangtze River and the Huai River. In the Wu region, canals were cut connecting the Three Rivers and the Five Lakes. In the Qi region, canals were opened between the Zi River and the Ji River. In the Shu region, Li Bing, the governor of Shu Commandery, cut the Lidui (Detached Mound), eliminating the harm of the Mo River, and also opened two rivers on the Chengdu Plain. These canals allowed for boat navigation, and the surplus water was used to irrigate farmland, bringing benefits to the common people. As for the areas the canals passed through, people often diverted water to build additional irrigation ditches for the fields, numbering in the hundreds of billions, but too many to count.
Ximen Bao diverted the Zhang River to irrigate Ye City, making the Henei region of Wei prosperous.
The state of Han, hearing that Qin was fond of undertaking engineering projects, wanted to use this to drain Qin’s resources and render it unable to attack the east, so it sent the hydraulic engineer Zheng Guo to persuade Qin to cut a canal. The canal was to draw water from the Jing River, starting from Zhongshan west to Hukou, then following the northern mountains eastward to empty into the Luo River, a total length of over three hundred li, intended for irrigation. When the project was half completed, it was discovered, and Qin wanted to kill Zheng Guo. Zheng Guo said: “I came initially as a spy, but once the canal is completed, it will also benefit Qin.” Qin considered this correct and finally allowed him to complete the canal. After the canal was finished, it was used to divert the muddy water, irrigating over forty thousand qing of saline-alkali land, with each mu yielding one zhong of grain. Thus the Guanzhong region became fertile land, with no years of famine. Qin thereby became rich and powerful, and ultimately annexed all the feudal states. Therefore this canal was named the Zhengguo Canal.
Thirty-nine years after the founding of the Han dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Xiaowen, the Yellow River breached at Suanzao, collapsing the Golden Dike to the east. The Dong Commandery then mobilized a large number of soldiers to block the breach.
More than forty years later, during the Yuanguang era of the present Son of Heaven (Emperor Wu of Han), the Yellow River breached again at Huzi, flowing southeast into Juye Marsh and connecting with the Huai River and the Si River. The Son of Heaven then sent Ji An and Zheng Dangshi to conscript laborers to block the breach, but as soon as it was blocked, it broke through again. At this time, Tian Fen, the Marquis of Wu’an, was Chancellor, and his fief was in Shu County. Shu County was north of the Yellow River; if the river broke to the south, Shu County would have no floods, and the harvest from his fief would increase. Tian Fen said to the emperor: “The breaches of the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers are acts of Heaven, not easily stopped by human effort; forcing a blockage might not accord with Heaven’s will.” Those who observed vapors and divined also held this view. Therefore the Son of Heaven did not attempt to block the breach for a long time.
At that time, Zheng Dangshi served as Grand Minister of Agriculture. He said: “In the past, grain shipments from east of the Pass were transported up the Wei River, taking about six months to complete. The waterway was over nine hundred li and often had difficult passages. If a canal were cut from Chang’an diverting the Wei River, following the foot of the Southern Mountains all the way to the Yellow River, it would be only three hundred-odd li, with a direct route, making shipping easy. It is estimated that shipments could be completed in three months. Moreover, the land below the canal consists of over ten thousand qing of fields, which could also be irrigated by drawing water. This would both reduce shipping time and save labor, while making the Guanzhong land more fertile and increasing grain production.” The Son of Heaven considered this correct and ordered the Qi hydraulic engineer Xu Bo to survey and plan the project. Tens of thousands of soldiers were conscripted to dig the shipping canal, and it was completed in three years. After the canal was opened, it was used for grain transport and proved very convenient. Thereafter, grain shipments gradually increased, and the people below the canal were also able to draw water to irrigate their fields.
Later, the Governor of Hedong Commandery, Fan Xi, submitted a memorial saying: “Transporting grain from east of the mountains westward amounts to over one million shi annually. Passing through the dangerous rapids of Dizhu Mountain, losses are heavy, and the effort and expense are considerable. If a canal were cut to divert the Fen River to irrigate the fields of Pishi and Fenyin, and the Yellow River to irrigate the fields of Fenyin and Puban, it is estimated that five thousand qing of good fields could be obtained. These five thousand qing were originally wasteland along the Yellow River, where people only cut grass and grazed livestock. Now, if irrigated and turned into fields, the yield could exceed two million shi of grain. This grain could be shipped up the Wei River, just like grain from Guanzhong, and shipping east of Dizhu Mountain could be stopped.” The Son of Heaven considered this correct and conscripted tens of thousands of soldiers to dig the canal and create fields. After several years, the Yellow River changed course, the canal became unfavorable, and the farmers could not even recover their seed grain. Over time, the canal fields in Hedong were abandoned and given to people from Yue, with the Shaofu collecting a small amount of tax from them.
Later, someone submitted a proposal to open the Baoxie Road and establish water transport. The emperor referred the matter to the Imperial Censor Zhang Tang. Zhang Tang investigated the matter and said: “The old road to Shu has many steep slopes and is winding and long. Now, if the Baoxie Road is cut, the slopes will be fewer and the distance nearly four hundred li shorter. Moreover, the Bao River connects with the Mian River, and the Xie River connects with the Wei River; both can be used for boat transport. Grain shipped from Nanyang up the Mian River enters the Bao River. Between the Bao and Xie Rivers, there is a stretch of over one hundred li where water transport is not possible, so goods would be transferred by cart, then enter the Wei River via the Xie River. In this way, grain from Hanzhong could be brought in, and transport from the eastern mountains via the Mian River would have no obstacles, making it more convenient than shipping through Dizhu Mountain. Furthermore, the Baoxie region is rich in timber and bamboo, comparable to Ba and Shu.” The Son of Heaven considered this correct and appointed Zhang Tang’s son, Zhang Ang, as Governor of Hanzhong Commandery. Tens of thousands of people were conscripted to cut the Baoxie Road, more than five hundred li in length. The road was indeed convenient and shorter, but the water was rapid and full of rocks, making it unsuitable for boat transport.
Later, Zhuang Xiongpi said: “The people of Linjin hope to cut a canal from the Luo River to irrigate over ten thousand qing of saline-alkali land east of Chongquan. If water can truly be brought, the yield per mu could reach ten shi.” For this purpose, over ten thousand soldiers were conscripted to dig a canal, drawing water from Zhengdi to the foot of Shangyan Mountain. The riverbanks were prone to collapse, so wells were dug, some over forty zhang deep. Wells were dug at intervals, and water was channeled through them underground. The current collapsed the earth and stone of Shangyan Mountain, flowing eastward through the mountain range for over ten li. The origin of well canals began from this time. While digging the canal, dragon bones were unearthed, so it was named the Dragon Head Canal. The project continued for over ten years, and the canal was somewhat passable, but it had not yet brought the benefits of irrigation.
For more than twenty years after the Yellow River breached at Huzi, harvests were poor each year, with the Liang and Chu regions suffering especially severely. The Son of Heaven had already performed the feng and shan sacrifices and toured the mountains and rivers. The following year, a drought occurred, and the dry fief area lacked rain. The Son of Heaven then sent Ji Ren and Guo Chang to conscript tens of thousands of soldiers to block the breach at Huzi. At this time, the Son of Heaven had already sacrificed at Wanli Sand. On his return, he personally went to the breach site, sinking a white horse and jade bi into the Yellow River, and ordered all his ministers and officials, from the generals on down, to carry brushwood and fill the breach. At that time, Dong Commandery burned brushwood, so there was very little of it. They then cut bamboo from the Qi Garden to make bamboo bundles for blocking the breach.
The Son of Heaven personally came to the Yellow River breach, lamenting that the work had not succeeded, and then composed a song: "The Huozi breach—what can be done? A vast expanse of white—villages have become rivers! All become rivers—the people have no peace; the work knows no end—Wu Mountain is leveled. Wu Mountain leveled—Juye Marsh overflows; fish leap and churn—as winter draws near. The river channel abandoned—departs from its constant flow; dragons gallop—about to journey far. Return to the old course—the favor of the spirits is vast; without performing the Feng and Shan sacrifices—how could one know of affairs beyond! Tell the River Earl for me—why is he so unkind? Overflowing without cease—causing the people sorrow? Nisang City floats—the Huai and Si Rivers are full; long without return—the water's force is slow." Another song said: "The Yellow River's waters vast—the rapids murmur; northward crossing in a winding course—opening the channel is difficult. Pluck long rushes—sink fine jade; the River Earl promises—but firewood cannot keep up. Firewood cannot keep up—it is the crime of the Wei people; burned desolate—alas, how to control the water! Cut down bamboo groves—drive piles and fill with stones; Xuanfang plugged—ten thousand blessings descend." Then at last the Huozi breach was blocked, and on top of it a palace was built, named Xuanfang Palace. Again, the Yellow River was led northward, two channels were opened, restoring the old traces of Yu, and the regions of Liang and Chu again enjoyed peace, with no flood disasters.
From then on, those in charge vied to discuss water conservancy. Shuofang, Xihe, Hexi, and Jiuquan all diverted water from the Yellow River and mountain valleys to irrigate farmland; in Guanzhong, the Fu Canal and Lingzhi Canal diverted various streams; Runan and Jiujiang diverted the Huai River; Donghai diverted water from Juzeding Marsh; at the foot of Mount Tai, diverted the Wen River: all opened canals to irrigate farmland, each reaching ten thousand qing. Other small canals that cut through mountains and opened paths were too numerous to count. But the most famous among them was the Xuanfang Canal.
The Grand Historian says: I traveled south to Mount Lu, observed where Yu diverted the Nine Rivers, then went to Taihuang in Kuaiji, ascended Gufu Mountain, and gazed at the Five Lakes; eastward I peeked at Luorui and Dapi, faced the Yellow River, and passed by channels of the Huai, Si, Ji, Ta, and Luo Rivers; westward I viewed Mount Min and Lidui in Shu; northward from Longmen to Shuofang. I sighed: The benefits and harms of water are truly great! I followed carrying firewood and brush to block the Xuanfang breach, grieved over the "Huozi" poem, and thus wrote the "Treatise on Rivers and Canals."
The benefits and harms of water have been so since ancient times. Yu dredged channels and followed the mountain contours to regulate rivers. In later ages, there were no lack of sages. The Hong Canal was already opened, and the Longshou Canal was also dug. Water was diverted to irrigate saline lands, and the people reaped abundant harvests. The Xuanfang project was celebrated in song, and the Liang and Chu regions were preserved.