Hereditary House of Chu, Tenth

The ancestors of the Chu state came from Emperor Zhuanxu, Gaoyang. Gaoyang was the grandson of the Yellow Emperor and the son of Changyi. Gaoyang gave birth to Cheng, Cheng gave birth to Juanzhang, and Juanzhang gave birth to Chongli. Chongli served as the Fire Regulator under Emperor Ku, Gaoxin, and was greatly meritorious, able to illuminate all under heaven. Emperor Ku bestowed upon him the name Zhurong. The Gonggong clan rebelled, and Emperor Ku sent Chongli to exterminate them, but he did not completely pacify them. Emperor Ku then killed Chongli on the day Gengyin, and had his younger brother Wuhui succeed Chongli’s position, continuing as Fire Regulator, also called Zhurong.

Wuhui gave birth to Luzhong. Luzhong had six sons, all born through the splitting of his ribs. The eldest was called Kunwu; the second, Canhu; the third, Pengzu; the fourth, Huiren; the fifth, Caoxing; the sixth, Jilian, whose surname was Mi, and from him came the Chu state. The Kunwu clan served as feudal lords during the Xia dynasty, but during the time of Xia Jie, they were destroyed by Tang of Shang. The Pengzu clan served as feudal lords during the Yin-Shang dynasty, and at the end of Yin, the Pengzu clan was destroyed. Jilian gave birth to Fuju, and Fuju gave birth to Xuexiong. His descendants later declined; some remained in the Central Plains, and some were among the barbarian tribes, making it impossible to record their lineage.

During the time of King Wen of Zhou, a descendant of Jilian was named Yuxiong. Yuxiong served King Wen of Zhou like a son, but died early. His son was called Xiong Li. Xiong Li gave birth to Xiong Kuang, and Xiong Kuang gave birth to Xiong Yi.

Xiong Yi lived during the time of King Cheng of Zhou. King Cheng promoted the descendants of those who had labored diligently for the kings Wen and Wu, enfeoffing Xiong Yi in the Chu barbarian region, granting him land of the Zi and Nan ranks, with the surname Mi, and he resided in Danyang. Chu Zi Xiong Yi, together with Lu Gong Boqin, the son of Weikang Shu named Mou, Jin Hou Xie, and the son of Qi Taigong named Lü Ji, served King Cheng of Zhou.

Xiong Yi gave birth to Xiong Ai, Xiong Ai gave birth to Xiong Dan, and Xiong Dan gave birth to Xiong Sheng. Xiong Sheng had his younger brother Xiong Yang succeed him. Xiong Yang gave birth to Xiong Qu.

Xiong Qu had three sons. During the time of King Yi of Zhou, the Zhou royal house declined, and some feudal lords did not come to court, attacking and warring among themselves. Xiong Qu gained the support of the people of the Jiang-Han region, so he raised troops to attack the state of Yong and Yangyue, advancing all the way to the land of E. Xiong Qu said, “We are barbarians and do not use the titles and posthumous names of the Central Plains.” Thus he established his eldest son Kang as King of Judan, his second son Hong as King of E, and his youngest son Zhichi as King of Yuezhang, all in the Chu barbarian region along the Yangtze River. By the time of King Li of Zhou, Li was tyrannical, and Xiong Qu, fearing he would attack Chu, removed the kingly titles.

Later, Xiong Wukang succeeded, but Wukang died early. Xiong Qu died, and his son Xiong Zhihong succeeded. Zhihong died, and his younger brother killed his son and usurped the throne, calling himself Xiong Yan. Xiong Yan gave birth to Xiong Yong.

In the sixth year of Xiong Yong, the people of Zhou rebelled, attacking King Li of Zhou, and King Li fled to Zhi. In the tenth year of Xiong Yong, he died, and his younger brother Xiong Yan succeeded.

In the tenth year of Xiong Yan, he died. He had four sons: the eldest called Boshuang, the second Zhongxue, the third Shukan, and the youngest Jixun. Xiong Yan died, and the eldest son Boshuang succeeded, becoming Xiong Shuang.

In the first year of Xiong Shuang, King Xuan of Zhou had just ascended the throne. In the sixth year of Xiong Shuang, he died, and his three younger brothers contended for the throne. Zhongxue died; Shukan fled and took refuge in Pu; the youngest brother Jixun succeeded, becoming Xiong Xun. In the sixteenth year of Xiong Xun, Duke Huan of Zheng was first enfeoffed in the land of Zheng. In the twenty-second year, Xiong Xun died, and his son Xiong E succeeded. In the ninth year of Xiong E, he died, and his son Xiong Yi succeeded, becoming Ruo’ao.

In the twentieth year of Ruo’ao, King You of Zhou was killed by the Quanrong, and the Zhou royal house moved eastward. Duke Xiang of Qin first became a feudal lord.

In the twenty-seventh year, Ruo’ao died, and his son Xiong Kan succeeded, becoming Xiao’ao. In the sixth year of Xiao’ao, he died, and his son Xiong Xun succeeded, becoming Fenmao. In the thirteenth year of Fenmao, Jin began to have unrest because of Quwo. In the seventeenth year of Fenmao, he died. Fenmao’s younger brother Xiong Tong killed Fenmao’s son and usurped the throne, becoming King Wu of Chu.

In the seventeenth year of King Wu, Quwo Zhuangbo of Jin killed the ruling lord of the suzerain state, Duke Xiao of Jin. In the nineteenth year, the younger brother of the Earl of Zheng, Duan, rebelled. In the twenty-first year, Zheng encroached upon the fields of the Son of Heaven of Zhou. In the twenty-third year, Wei killed its own ruler, Duke Huan of Wei. In the twenty-ninth year, Lu killed its own ruler, Duke Yin of Lu. In the thirty-first year, the Grand Steward of Song, Huadu, killed his own ruler, Duke Shang of Song.

In the thirty-fifth year, Chu attacked the state of Sui. The Marquis of Sui said, “I have no offense.” The King of Chu said, “We are barbarians. Now all the feudal lords have turned against the Son of Heaven and are attacking each other, some killing one another. I have worn-out armor and wish to use it to participate in the affairs of the Central Plains. Please request the royal house to raise my title.” The people of Sui went to the Zhou royal house on behalf of Chu to request an elevation of Chu’s title, but the Zhou royal house did not consent. The people of Sui returned and reported to Chu. In the thirty-seventh year, Chu Xiong Tong became angry and said, “My ancestor Yuxiong was a teacher to King Wen and died early. King Cheng promoted my former lord and granted him land of the Zi and Nan ranks to dwell in Chu. The barbarians all submitted, but the King of Zhou did not award a higher rank. I will honor myself.” Thereupon he proclaimed himself king, which was King Wu, and after making a covenant with the people of Sui, he departed. At this time, he began to open up the Pu region and take possession of it.

In the fifty-first year, the Zhou royal house summoned the Marquis of Sui and reprimanded him for allowing Chu to call itself king. The King of Chu was angry, believing that the Marquis of Sui had betrayed him, and attacked Sui. King Wu died while on the march, and the army stopped its advance. His son, King Wen of Chu, Xiong Zi, succeeded and began to establish the capital at Ying.

In the second year of King Wen, while attacking the state of Shen, he passed through Deng. The people of Deng said, “The King of Chu is easy to capture,” but the Marquis of Deng did not agree. In the sixth year, he attacked Cai, captured the Marquis Ai of Cai and brought him back, but soon released him. Chu grew strong and bullied the small states between the Jiang and Han rivers, and all the small states feared it. In the eleventh year, Duke Huan of Qi began to dominate as hegemon, and Chu also began to grow powerful.

In the twelfth year, he attacked Deng and destroyed it. In the thirteenth year, King Wen died, and his son Xiong Jian succeeded, becoming Zhuang’ao. In the fifth year of Zhuang’ao, he wanted to kill his younger brother Xiong Yun. Xiong Yun fled to Sui, and together with the people of Sui, he attacked and killed Zhuang’ao, usurping the throne, becoming King Cheng.

In the first year of King Cheng, Xiong Yun, having just ascended the throne, widely spread kindness and restored old friendly relations with the feudal lords. He sent an envoy to present tribute to the Son of Heaven of Zhou, and the Son of Heaven bestowed upon him sacrificial meat, saying, “Guard well the disturbances among the Yi and Yue in your southern region, and do not encroach upon the Central Plains.” Thus Chu’s territory expanded to a thousand li.

In the sixteenth year, Duke Huan of Qi led troops to invade Chu, reaching Xingshan. King Cheng of Chu sent General Qu Wan to lead troops to resist, and they formed a covenant with Duke Huan of Qi. Duke Huan of Qi reproached Chu for not paying tribute to the Zhou royal house, and Chu agreed, so Duke Huan of Qi departed.

In the eighteenth year, King Cheng led troops north to attack Xu. The ruler of Xu bared his upper body and apologized, so King Cheng released him. In the twenty-second year, he attacked the state of Huang. In the twenty-sixth year, he destroyed the state of Ying.

In the thirty-third year, Duke Xiang of Song wanted to hold a meeting and summoned the King of Chu. The King of Chu was angry and said, “Summoning me? I will go and attack and humiliate him.” So he set out, and at the place of Meng, he seized and humiliated Duke Xiang of Song, but soon released him and sent him back. In the thirty-fourth year, Duke Wen of Zheng went south to pay court to the King of Chu. King Cheng of Chu attacked Song to the north and defeated it at the Hong River, shooting and wounding Duke Xiang of Song, who later died from his wounds.

In the thirty-fifth year, the Jin prince Chong’er passed through Chu. King Cheng treated him with the rites due to a guest from a feudal state and sent him to Qin with generous gifts.

In the thirty-ninth year, Duke Xi of Lu came to request troops to attack Qi. Chu sent Shen Hou to lead troops to attack Qi, capturing the Gu region and settling there Prince Yong, the son of Duke Huan of Qi. Seven sons of Duke Huan of Qi all fled to Chu, and Chu enfeoffed them all as Upper Grand Masters. Chu destroyed the state of Kui because Kui did not offer sacrifices to Zhurong and Yuxiong.

In the summer, Chu attacked Song. Song urgently sought help from Jin, and Jin rescued Song. King Cheng withdrew his troops and returned. General Ziyu requested to fight the Jin army, but King Cheng said, “Chong’er has been in exile for a long time and has finally been able to return to his state. This is Heaven opening the way for him, and he cannot be opposed.” Ziyu insisted on his request, so King Cheng gave him only a small force and departed. The Jin army indeed defeated Ziyu at Chengpu. King Cheng was angry and killed Ziyu.

In the forty-sixth year, initially, King Cheng wanted to establish Shangchen as the crown prince and informed Lingyin Zishang of this. Zishang said, "Your Majesty is still young, and moreover, you have many favored consorts. Deposing or establishing a crown prince will cause turmoil. The succession in Chu often falls to the youngest son. Besides, Shangchen has eyes like a wasp and a voice like a jackal—he is a cruel man and should not be made crown prince." King Cheng did not listen and established Shangchen. Later, he wanted to establish Prince Zhi and depose Crown Prince Shangchen. Shangchen heard of this but the news was not certain, so he told his tutor Pan Chong, "How can I get the true situation?" Pan Chong said, "Host a banquet for King Cheng's favored consort Jiang Mi but show her no respect." Shangchen followed this advice. Jiang Mi became angry and said, "No wonder the king wants to kill you and establish Zhi!" Shangchen told Pan Chong, "It is confirmed." Pan Chong said, "Can you serve Prince Zhi?" Shangchen said, "I cannot." "Can you flee?" Shangchen said, "I cannot." "Can you do a great deed?" Shangchen said, "I can." In winter, in the tenth month, Shangchen surrounded King Cheng with the palace guards. King Cheng asked to eat a bear's paw before dying, but Shangchen did not agree. On the day Dingwei, King Cheng hanged himself. Shangchen succeeded to the throne; this was King Mu.

After King Mu ascended the throne, he gave the crown prince's palace to Pan Chong, made him the Grand Tutor, and put him in charge of state affairs. In the third year of King Mu, he extinguished the state of Jiang. In the fourth year, he extinguished the states of Liu and Liao. The states of Liu and Liao were descendants of Gaoyao. In the eighth year, he attacked the state of Chen. In the twelfth year, he died. His son, King Zhuang, named Lü, succeeded him.

King Zhuang ascended the throne and for three years issued no orders or decrees, indulging in pleasure day and night. He issued an order within the state: "Anyone who dares to remonstrate will be executed without pardon!" Wu Ju entered the palace to remonstrate. King Zhuang was holding a woman from Zheng on his left and a beauty from Yue on his right, seated amidst bells and drums. Wu Ju said, "I wish to offer a riddle." He said, "There is a bird that has perched on a mound for three years, neither flying nor calling. What kind of bird is this?" King Zhuang said, "If it does not fly for three years, when it flies it will soar to the sky; if it does not call for three years, when it calls it will startle everyone. Wu Ju, withdraw. I understand." After a few months, King Zhuang became even more dissolute. The grand master Su Cong then entered the palace to remonstrate. King Zhuang said, "Did you not hear my order?" Su Cong replied, "To sacrifice my life to bring clarity to my lord—this is my wish." Then King Zhuang ceased his debauchery and attended to state affairs. He executed several hundred people and promoted several hundred others, appointing Wu Ju and Su Cong to handle government business. The people of the state were all delighted. In that year, he extinguished the state of Yong. In the sixth year, he attacked the state of Song and captured five hundred war chariots.

In the eighth year, Chu attacked the Rong of Luhun and thus reached the Luo River, reviewing troops at the borders of Zhou. King Ding of Zhou sent Wangsun Man to console the King of Chu. The King of Chu asked about the size and weight of the nine tripods. Wangsun Man replied, "It lies in virtue, not in the tripods themselves." King Zhuang said, "Do not rely on the nine tripods! Chu only needs to break off the blades of its halberds and hooks to have enough to cast the nine tripods." Wangsun Man said, "Alas! Has Your Majesty forgotten? In ancient times, when the Yu and Xia were in their prime, distant peoples came to submit, the governors of the nine provinces presented bronze, and the nine tripods were cast with images of all things. Everything was complete, so that the people would know spirits and evil beings. When Jie of Xia was chaotic and lost virtue, the tripods were moved to Shang, which held the state for six hundred years. When Zhou of Shang was tyrannical, the tripods were moved to Zhou. If virtue is bright and glorious, the tripods, even if small, are heavy; if evil and chaotic, the tripods, even if large, are light. In former times, King Cheng fixed the tripods at Jiaru and divined that they would be transmitted through thirty generations and last seven hundred years—this was Heaven's mandate. Although the virtue of Zhou has declined, the mandate of Heaven has not changed. The weight of the tripods is not something that can be inquired about." The King of Chu then withdrew his troops and returned to the state.

In the ninth year, he appointed the Ruo'ao clan as chancellor. Someone slandered the Ruo'ao clan to the King of Chu. Fearing execution, the Ruo'ao clan attacked the King of Chu. The King of Chu raised troops and exterminated the Ruo'ao clan. In the thirteenth year, he extinguished the state of Shu.

In the sixteenth year, he attacked the state of Chen and killed Xia Zhengshu. Xia Zhengshu had assassinated his ruler, so he was executed. After breaking Chen, he immediately made it a county. All the ministers came to congratulate him, but Shen Shushi, who had returned from a mission to Qi, alone did not congratulate him. The King of Chu asked him, and he replied, "A proverb says, 'If someone leads an ox to trample another's fields, the field owner takes the ox.' Trampling the fields is indeed wrong, but is it not also excessive to take the ox? Moreover, Your Majesty led the feudal lords to punish Chen because of its internal turmoil. You acted with righteousness, yet you covet its land and make it a county—how can you then command the world with this?" King Zhuang then restored the state of Chen and established a descendant of Chen as its ruler.

In the spring of the seventeenth year, King Zhuang of Chu besieged the state of Zheng and captured it after three months. Entering through the Huang Gate, the Earl of Zheng, baring his upper body and leading a sheep, came to meet him, saying, "I was not blessed by Heaven and could not serve Your Majesty. Your Majesty therefore became angry and brought calamity to my humble city—this is my crime. How dare I not follow your commands? If you exile me to the Southern Sea, or make me a servant or retainer and bestow me upon a feudal lord, I will follow your commands. If Your Majesty does not forget the kings Li, Xuan, Huan, and Wu, and does not extinguish their altars of soil and grain, allowing me to reform and serve Your Majesty, this is my wish, but I dare not hope for it. I only venture to speak my true feelings." The ministers of Chu said, "Let the king not agree." King Zhuang said, "The ruler of Zheng is able to humble himself—he must be able to trust and employ his people. How can we extinguish him?" King Zhuang personally held the banner and directed the troops left and right, leading the army to retreat thirty li and encamp, then agreed to make peace with Zheng. Pan Wang entered Zheng to form an alliance, and Ziliang went to Chu as a hostage. In summer, in the sixth month, Jin came to rescue Zheng and fought with Chu. The Chu army defeated the Jin army at the Yellow River, then reached Hengyong before returning.

In the twentieth year, he besieged the state of Song because Song had killed a Chu envoy. The siege lasted five months. Within the city, food was exhausted; people exchanged children to eat and split bones for fuel. Huayuan of Song came out of the city and told the truth. King Zhuang said, "He is truly a noble man!" So he withdrew and departed.

In the twenty-third year, King Zhuang died. His son, King Gong, named Shen, succeeded him.

In the sixteenth year of King Gong, Jin attacked the state of Zheng. Zheng informed Chu of the emergency, and King Gong went to rescue Zheng. He fought with the Jin army at Yanling. The Jin army defeated the Chu army and shot King Gong in the eye. King Gong summoned General Zifan. Zifan was fond of wine, and his attendant Shuyanggu plied him with drink until he was drunk. King Gong became angry, shot Zifan to death, and then withdrew his troops and returned.

In the thirty-first year, King Gong died. His son, King Kang, named Zhao, succeeded him. King Kang reigned for fifteen years and then died. His son, named Yun, succeeded him; this was Jia'ao.

King Kang's favored younger brothers were Gongzi Wei, Zibi, Zixi, and Qiji. In the third year of Jia'ao, he appointed his uncle, King Kang's younger brother Gongzi Wei, as Lingyin in charge of military affairs. In the fourth year, Gongzi Wei went on a mission to Zheng. On the way, he heard that the King of Chu was ill and returned. On the day Jiyou of the twelfth month, Gongzi Wei entered the palace to inquire about the King of Chu's illness and strangled him with a cap strap. He then killed the king's sons Mo and Pingxia. He sent an envoy to Zheng to announce the mourning. Wu Ju asked, "Who will be the successor?" The envoy replied, "Our great officer Wei." Wu Ju corrected him, saying, "Gongzi Wei, the son of King Gong, is the eldest." Zibi fled to Jin, and Gongzi Wei succeeded to the throne; this was King Ling.

In the third year of King Ling, in the sixth month, Chu sent an envoy to inform Jin that it wished to convene the feudal lords. All the feudal lords gathered with Chu at Shen. Wu Ju said, "In ancient times, Qi of Xia had a feast at Juntai, Tang of Shang received the mandate at Jingbo, King Wu of Zhou swore an oath at Mengjin, King Cheng reviewed troops at Qiyang, King Kang held an audience at Fenggong, King Mu convened a meeting at Tushan, Duke Huan of Qi led the army at Zhaoling, and Duke Wen of Jin had the covenant at Jiantu. Which ritual will Your Majesty adopt?" King Ling said, "Adopt the ritual of Duke Huan of Qi." At that time, Zichan of Zheng was present. Then Jin, Song, Lu, and Wei did not attend. After the meeting, King Ling showed an arrogant expression. Wu Ju said, "Jie of Xia held a meeting at Youreng, and the Youmin rebelled against him. Zhou of Shang held a meeting at Lishan, and the Dongyi rebelled against him. King You of Zhou held a meeting at Taishi, and the Rong and Di rebelled against him. Your Majesty should be cautious from beginning to end!"

In the seventh month, Chu led the allied feudal lords in attacking Wu and besieged Zhufang. In the eighth month, they captured Zhufang, imprisoned Qing Feng, and exterminated his clan. They paraded Qing Feng as a warning, saying: "Do not imitate Qing Feng of Qi, who murdered his ruler and bullied the young lord, forcing the great officers to form an alliance!" Qing Feng retorted, saying: "Do not imitate Wei, the younger son of King Gong of Chu, who murdered his ruler's elder brother's son Yun and usurped his place!" Then King Ling ordered Qing Feng to be killed immediately.

In the seventh year, the Zhanghua Terrace was completed, and an order was issued to take in fugitives to populate it.

In the eighth year, Prince Qiji was sent to lead troops and destroy the state of Chen. In the tenth year, the Marquis of Cai was summoned, made drunk, and killed. Qiji was sent to pacify Cai, and he was subsequently appointed as the Duke of Chen and Cai.

In the eleventh year, Chu attacked Xu to intimidate Wu. King Ling stationed himself at Ganxi to await the outcome. King Ling said: "Qi, Jin, Lu, and Wei—when they were enfeoffed, they all received precious vessels. Only I have none. Now I have sent an envoy to Zhou to request the tripods as part of my enfeoffment. Will the Son of Heaven give them to me?" Xifu replied: "He will give them to you, my lord! In former times, our first king Xiong Yi dwelt in seclusion in the Jing Mountains, driving a rough cart and wearing tattered clothes, living amidst the wilds, crossing mountains and fording rivers to serve the Son of Heaven, offering only peach-wood bows and thorn-arrow shafts for the royal service. Qi is the Son of Heaven's maternal uncle; Jin, Lu, and Wei are his younger brothers by the same mother; Chu therefore received no grant, while they all did. Now Zhou, along with these four states, serves you, my lord. They will comply with your every command—how could they begrudge the nine tripods?" King Ling said: "Previously, my imperial ancestor, the elder brother Kunwu, once dwelled in the old Xu lands. Now the people of Zheng covet those fields and refuse to give them to me. If I demand them now, will they give them to me?" Xifu replied: "The Son of Heaven does not begrudge the nine tripods—how would Zheng dare to begrudge the fields?" King Ling said: "In former times, the feudal lords were estranged from me and feared Jin. Now I have greatly fortified cities in Chen, Cai, and Bujiang, each with a thousand war chariots. Do the feudal lords fear me?" Xifu replied: "They do!" King Ling said happily: "Xifu is skilled in discussing ancient matters."

In the spring of the twelfth year, King Ling of Chu was enjoying himself at Ganxi and refused to leave. The people within the state were suffering from the corvée labor. Earlier, when King Ling had gathered the armies at Shen, he insulted Chang Shouguo, a great officer of Yue, and killed Guan Qi, a great officer of Cai. Guan Qi's son, Guan Cong, had fled to Wu, and he urged the King of Wu to attack Chu, fomenting internal unrest on behalf of Chang Shouguo of Yue, acting as a spy for Wu. He forged an order from Prince Qiji to summon Prince Bi back from Jin. After arriving in Cai, he joined forces with the armies of Wu and Yue, intending to attack Cai. He had Prince Bi meet with Qiji, and they formed an alliance at Deng. They then entered the Chu capital, killed King Ling's heir, Prince Lu, and established Prince Bi as King of Chu, with Prince Zixi as Lingyin and Qiji as Sima. After first clearing the palace, Guan Cong led troops to Ganxi and proclaimed to the Chu army: "The state already has a new king. Those who return first will have their ranks, fiefs, fields, and houses restored. Those who return later will be exiled." The Chu army all scattered, deserting King Ling and returning to the state.

When King Ling heard that Prince Lu was dead, he fell from his chariot and said: "Do others love their sons as I do?" An attendant said: "Even more so." King Ling said: "I have killed too many sons of others—how could I avoid this?" The Right Steward said: "Please wait in the outskirts and submit to the judgment of the people." King Ling said: "The people's anger must not be provoked." The Right Steward said: "For the moment, enter a large district and request reinforcements from the feudal lords." King Ling said: "All have turned against me." The Right Steward said again: "For the moment, take refuge with a feudal lord and submit to the arrangements of a great state." King Ling said: "Great fortune will not come again; it would only bring disgrace upon myself." So King Ling took a boat, intending to enter the Ying region. The Right Steward judged that King Ling would not adopt his plans, feared dying together with him, and so also left King Ling and fled.

King Ling then wandered alone in the mountains. The country folk dared not take him in. On the road, King Ling encountered a former attendant and said to him: "Find me something to eat—I have not eaten for three days." The attendant said: "The new king has issued an order: anyone who dares to supply King Ling's followers with food will have his family punished by extending the crime to three clans. Moreover, I cannot find any food." King Ling then lay down, pillowing his head on the attendant's thigh. The attendant replaced his thigh with a clod of earth and fled. When King Ling woke and found the attendant gone, he became too weak from hunger to rise. Shen Hai, son of Shen Wuyu, the Yuyin, said: "My father twice violated the king's commands, yet King Ling did not execute him—no greater kindness exists!" So he searched for King Ling, encountered him collapsed from hunger at Li Marsh, and respectfully brought him home. On the day Guichou of the fifth month in summer, King Ling died in Shen Hai's house. Shen Hai had his two daughters buried with him as sacrifices, and they were interred together.

At this time, although Chu had already established Prince Bi as king, he feared King Ling's return, and had not yet heard news of his death. So Guan Cong said to the new king, Bi: "If you do not kill Qiji, even if you obtain the state, you will still suffer disaster." The new king said: "I cannot bear to do it." Guan Cong said: "Another will bear to do it to you." The new king did not listen, so Guan Cong left. Qiji returned to the state. The people were terrified every night, saying: "King Ling has returned!" On the night of the day Yimao, Qiji sent boatmen along the river, shouting as they ran: "King Ling has arrived!" The people were even more terrified. He also sent Man Chengran to tell the new king Bi and Lingyin Zixi: "King Ling has arrived! The people are about to kill you, and the Sima is also coming! Make your plans early, and do not bring disgrace upon yourselves. The people's fury is like water and fire—it cannot be saved." The new king Bi and Zixi then committed suicide. On the day Bingchen, Qiji ascended the throne as king, changing his name to Xiong Ju—this was King Ping.

King Ping, having used deceit to kill two kings and establish himself, feared that the people and the feudal lords might turn against him, so he bestowed favors upon the people. He restored the territories of Chen and Cai, established their descendants as before, and returned the land seized from Zheng. He comforted the people within the state and cultivated good government. Because of the turmoil in Chu, Wu captured five Chu generals and returned home. King Ping said to Guan Cong: "Choose whatever you desire." Guan Cong wished to be the Chief Diviner, and King Ping granted his request.

Earlier, King Gong of Chu had five favored sons, but no legitimate heir to establish. So he gazed into the distance at the mountains and rivers, sacrificed to the many spirits, and asked the spirits to decide the successor, to let him preside over the state. King Gong secretly buried a jade disk in the ancestral temple together with Baji, summoned the five princes to fast, and then enter. Kang Wang stepped over the jade disk; King Ling pressed upon it with his elbow; Zibi and Zixi were both far away. Ping Wang was young, carried forward to kneel and bow, and happened to press exactly on the knob of the jade disk. Therefore, Kang Wang was established due to his seniority, but during his son's time the throne was lost; Prince Wei became King Ling and was himself murdered; Zibi ruled as king for only a dozen days; Zixi was not established, and both were killed. All four sons left no descendants and had no successors. Only Qiji was later established—this was King Ping—and he ultimately continued the sacrifices of Chu, exactly fulfilling the omen of the spirits.

At that time, Zibi returned from Jin. Han Xuanzi asked Shuxiang, “Can Zibi succeed?” Shuxiang replied, “He cannot.” Xuanzi said, “Those who share the same hatred need each other like merchants doing business. Why can he not succeed?” Shuxiang replied, “There is no one who shares the same fondness with Zibi; who shares the same hatred with him? To seize a state, there are five difficulties: having favor but no worthy men—this is the first; having worthy men but no internal support—this is the second; having internal support but no strategy—this is the third; having strategy but no people—this is the fourth; having people but no virtue—this is the fifth. Zibi has been in Jin for thirteen years. Among those from Jin and Chu who follow him, none are known to have achieved prominence—this can be said to have no worthy men. His clan relatives have turned against him—this can be said to have no internal support. He acts without an opportune moment—this can be said to have no strategy. He has lived abroad all his life—this can be said to have no people. He is exiled and no one misses him—this can be said to have no virtue. The King of Chu is violent but fears nothing. Zibi must bear these five difficulties to assassinate the ruler—who can help him succeed! As for possessing Chu, it will likely be Qiji, will it not? He governs Chen and Cai, and all beyond Fangcheng submit to him. Harsh and evil deeds do not occur; thieves and robbers are hidden; personal desires do not violate righteousness; the people have no resentment. The former spirits appoint him, and the state’s people trust him. When the Mi clan has turmoil, the youngest son is always established—this is the constant practice of Chu. Zibi’s office is merely the Youyin; in terms of his nobility and favor, he is merely a concubine’s son; according to the spirits’ appointment, he is far removed; the people do not miss him—on what basis will he be established?” Xuanzi said, “Were not Duke Huan of Qi and Duke Wen of Jin also like this?” Shuxiang replied, “Duke Huan of Qi was the son of Wey Ji, favored by Duke Xi of Qi. He had Bao Shuya, Bin Xuwu, and Xi Peng as his assistants, Ju and Wey as external allies, and the Gao and Guo clans as internal supporters. He followed good advice like flowing water and bestowed kindness without weariness. Was it not fitting for him to possess the state? In the past, our Duke Wen was the son of Hu Ji, favored by Duke Xian of Jin. He loved learning without tiring. Born at seventeen, he had five worthy men, with the former high officials Ziyu and Zifan as his heart and mind, Wei Chou and Jia Tuo as his strong helpers, Qi, Song, Qin, and Chu as external allies, and the Luan, Xi, Hu, and Xian clans as internal supporters. He fled for nineteen years, his resolve becoming firmer. Duke Hui and Duke Huai of Jin abandoned the people, and the people followed and helped Duke Wen. Thus, was it not fitting for Duke Wen to possess the state? Zibi has given nothing to the people, has no external aid, when he left Jin, Jin did not see him off; when he returned to Chu, Chu did not welcome him. On what basis can he possess the state!” Zibi indeed ultimately came to a bad end, and the one finally established was Qiji, just as Shuxiang had said.

In the second year of King Ping of Chu, he sent Fei Wuji to Qin to fetch a wife for Crown Prince Jian. The Qin woman was very beautiful. When she arrived in Chu but had not yet reached the capital, Fei Wuji returned first and advised King Ping, saying, “The Qin woman is very beautiful. Your Majesty can marry her yourself and find another for the Crown Prince.” King Ping followed his advice and ultimately married the Qin woman himself, fathering Xiong Zhen. He found another wife for the Crown Prince. At that time, Wu She was the Grand Tutor of the Crown Prince, and Fei Wuji was the Junior Tutor. Fei Wuji was not favored by the Crown Prince and often slandered Crown Prince Jian before King Ping. Crown Prince Jian was then fifteen years old; his mother was a woman from Cai, not favored by King Ping, and King Ping gradually became more estranged from Crown Prince Jian.

In the sixth year of King Ping, he ordered Crown Prince Jian to reside in Chengfu to guard the border. Fei Wuji again slandered Crown Prince Jian day and night before King Ping, saying, “Since Fei Wuji sent the Qin woman into the palace, the Crown Prince has harbored resentment, and he cannot but have grievances against Your Majesty. Your Majesty should be somewhat on guard. Moreover, the Crown Prince resides in Chengfu, wields military power alone, and externally forms alliances with the feudal lords, intending to enter the capital and create chaos.” King Ping summoned Wu She, the Grand Tutor of Crown Prince Jian, and reprimanded him. Wu She knew it was Fei Wuji’s slander and said, “Why does Your Majesty alienate your own flesh and blood because of a petty minister?” Fei Wuji said, “If you do not stop this now, you will regret it later.” So King Ping imprisoned Wu She. Then he ordered Sima Fenyang to summon Crown Prince Jian, intending to kill him. When the Crown Prince heard this, he fled to Song.

Fei Wuji said, “Wu She has two sons. If they are not killed, they will become a calamity for Chu. Why not summon them under the pretext of pardoning their father? They will surely come.” So King Ping sent someone to say to Wu She, “If you can summon your two sons, I will let you live; otherwise, you will die.” Wu She said, “Wu Shang will come, but Wu Xu will not.” King Ping said, “Why?” Wu She said, “Wu Shang’s character is incorruptible; he can die for righteousness, is compassionate, filial, and benevolent. Hearing that being summoned can spare his father’s life, he will surely come, not caring about his own death. Wu Xu’s character is wise and calculating, brave and proud of achievements. Knowing that coming means certain death, he will surely not come. However, the one who will become a worry for Chu is this son.” So King Ping sent people to summon them, saying, “Come, and I will pardon your father.” Wu Shang said to Wu Xu, “I have heard that if our father can be spared death but we do not go, it is unfilial; if our father is killed and we cannot avenge him, it is without strategy; to assess one’s own ability and take on matters is wisdom. You go; I will return to face death.” Wu Shang then returned. Wu Xu drew his bow and fitted an arrow, went out to see the, and said, “Our father has committed a crime; why summon his sons?” As he was about to shoot, the envoy turned and fled, and Wu Xu then escaped to Wu. When Wu She heard this, he said, “Wu Xu has fled; Chu is in danger.” The people of Chu then killed Wu She and Wu Shang.

In the tenth year of King Ping, the mother of Crown Prince Jian of Chu was in Juchao and secretly formed ties with Wu. Wu sent Prince Guang to attack Chu, and they defeated Chen and Cai, seizing the mother of Crown Prince Jian and leaving. Chu was terrified and built city walls in Ying. Initially, children from the border town of Beiliang in Wu and the border town of Zhongli in Chu fought over mulberry leaves. The two families became angry and attacked each other, and the people of Beiliang were killed. The grandee of Beiliang was enraged and mobilized the town’s troops to attack Zhongli. When the King of Chu heard this, he became angry and mobilized the state’s troops to destroy Beiliang. When the King of Wu heard this, he was greatly enraged and also raised troops, sending Prince Guang to attack Chu, taking advantage of the influence of Crown Prince Jian’s mother’s family in Chu, and thus captured Zhongli and Juchao. Chu then, in fear, built the city walls of Ying.

In the thirteenth year of King Ping, King Ping died. General Zichang said, “Crown Prince Zhen is young, and his mother was the one whom the former Crown Prince Jian was supposed to marry.” He wanted to establish Lingyin Zixi. Zixi was a younger half-brother of King Ping and had righteous conduct. Zixi said, “The state has fixed rules; changing the succession will cause chaos, and speaking such words will bring death.” So they established Crown Prince Zhen, who was King Zhao of Chu.

In the first year of King Zhao of Chu, the people of Chu all disliked Fei Wuji because he had slandered and driven away Crown Prince Jian and killed Wu She, his sons, and Xi Wan. Xi Wan’s clansman, the son of Bo, Bo Pi, and Wu Zixu all fled to Wu. Wu’s army repeatedly invaded Chu, and the people of Chu greatly resented Fei Wuji. Lingyin Zichang of Chu killed Fei Wuji to please the people, and the people then were pleased.

In the fourth year of King Zhao, three sons of the Duke of Wu fled to Chu. Chu granted them land to defend against Wu. In the fifth year of King Zhao, Wu captured Liu and Qian in Chu. In the seventh year of King Zhao, Chu sent Zichang to attack Wu, and Wu defeated the Chu army greatly at Yuzhang.

In the tenth year of King Zhao, winter, King Helü of Wu, Wu Zixu, and Bo Pi, together with Tang and Cai, attacked Chu. Chu was greatly defeated, and the Wu army then entered Ying, defiling the tomb of King Ping—this was because of Wu Zixu. When the Wu army came, Chu sent Zichang to lead the army to meet them, and the two armies arrayed themselves on opposite banks of the Han River. Wu defeated Zichang, and Zichang fled to Zheng. The Chu army fled, and Wu pursued with victory, reaching Ying after five battles. On the day Jimao, King Zhao fled. On the day Gengchen, the people of Wu entered Ying.

When King Zhao was fleeing, he reached Yunmeng. The people of Yunmeng, not knowing he was the King of Chu, shot and wounded him. The king fled to the state of Yun. Huai, the younger brother of the Duke of Yun, said, “King Ping killed my father; now if I kill his son, would that not be permissible?” The Duke of Yun restrained him, but fearing he might harm King Zhao, he fled together with the king to the state of Sui. When the King of Wu heard that King Zhao had gone to Sui, he immediately attacked Sui and said to the people of Sui, “All the descendants of Zhou enfeoffed between the Yangzi and Han Rivers have been destroyed by Chu.” He wanted to kill King Zhao. Zi Qi, a follower of King Zhao, then deeply concealed the king, impersonated the King of Chu himself, and said to the people of Sui, “Hand me over to Wu.” The people of Sui divined about handing Zi Qi over to Wu; the omen was inauspicious, so they declined the King of Wu, saying, “King Zhao has fled and is not in Sui.” The King of Wu requested to enter Sui and search himself, but Sui would not consent, so the King of Wu withdrew his troops and left.

When King Zhao left Ying, he sent Shen Baoxu to Qin to request rescue. Qin provided five hundred war chariots to rescue Chu, and Chu also gathered its scattered troops, joining with the Qin army to attack the Wu forces. In the sixth month of the eleventh year of King Zhao’s reign, they defeated the Wu army at Ji. It happened that the king of Wu’s younger brother, Fugai, seeing the Wu king’s troops suffer casualties and defeat, fled back to Wu and established himself as king. Hearing this, Helü left Chu with his army and returned to attack Fugai. Fugai was defeated and fled to Chu, where Chu enfeoffed him at Tangxi, calling his lineage the Tangxi clan.

After King Zhao of Chu destroyed the state of Tang, in the ninth month, he returned to Ying. In the twelfth year of King Zhao, Wu again attacked Chu and captured the territory of Fan. Chu was terrified, left Ying, and moved the capital north to Ruo.

In the sixteenth year of King Zhao, Confucius was acting as chief minister in Lu. In the twentieth year of King Zhao, Chu destroyed the state of Dun and destroyed the state of Hu. In the twenty-first year of King Zhao, King Helü of Wu attacked Yue. King Goujian of Yue shot and wounded the King of Wu, and Helü subsequently died. From then on, Wu resented Yue and no longer attacked Chu to the west.

In the spring of the twenty-seventh year of King Zhao, Wu attacked Chen, and King Zhao of Chu went to rescue Chen, stationing his army at Chengfu. In the tenth month, King Zhao fell ill while in the army. There was a red cloud like a bird flying on both sides of the sun. King Zhao asked the Grand Historian of Zhou, and the Grand Historian said, “This is harmful to the King of Chu, but the calamity can be transferred to the generals and ministers.” When the generals and ministers heard this, they requested to pray to the spirits with their own bodies. King Zhao said, “The generals and ministers are my limbs and thighs. If I now transfer the calamity to them, how could that remove my illness?” He would not listen. Divination indicated that the Yellow River was causing the trouble, and the grandees requested to pray to the Yellow River. King Zhao said, “Since my former kings received their fief, the mountains and rivers we have sacrificed to have not extended beyond the Yangzi and Han Rivers. The Yellow River is not something we have offended against.” He stopped them and would not permit the prayer. When Confucius was in Chen and heard this, he said, “King Zhao of Chu understands great principles. It is fitting that he did not lose his state!”

When King Zhao’s illness became critical, he then summoned all the princes and grandees and said, “I have no ability, and have twice brought disgrace upon the armies of Chu. Now to be able to end my days in peace is my good fortune.” He abdicated in favor of his younger brother, Prince Shen, as king, but Prince Shen refused. He then abdicated in favor of his second younger brother, Prince Jie, who also refused. Thereupon he abdicated in favor of his third younger brother, Prince Lü, and after yielding five times, Prince Lü consented to become king. When about to do battle, on the day Gengyin, King Zhao died in the army. Zi Lü said, “When the king was gravely ill, he set aside his own son and abdicated to the assembled ministers. The reason I consented to the king was to ease the king’s mind. Now that the king has died, how dare I forget the king’s intention?” He then consulted with Zi Xi and Zi Qi, secretly sent out troops to block the roads, and welcomed the son of a Yue woman, named Zhang, to establish him as ruler—this was King Hui. Then they withdrew the army and returned to the state, burying King Zhao.

In the second year of King Hui, Zi Xi recalled from Wu Sheng, the son of the former Crown Prince Jian of King Ping, and made him Grandee of Chao, calling him Duke Bai. Duke Bai was fond of military affairs and treated able men with courtesy, desiring to take revenge. In the sixth year, Duke Bai requested that Lingyin Zi Xi send troops to attack Zheng. Earlier, Duke Bai’s father Jian had fled to Zheng, and Zheng killed him. Duke Bai fled to Wu, and Zi Xi recalled him, so Duke Bai resented Zheng and wanted to attack it. Zi Xi agreed but did not send troops for him. In the eighth year, Jin attacked Zheng, and Zheng urgently sought help from Chu. Chu sent Zi Xi to rescue Zheng. Zi Xi accepted bribes from Zheng and then withdrew his troops and left. Duke Bai Sheng was furious, and thereupon with death-defying warriors like Shi Qi and others, he attacked and killed Lingyin Zi Xi and Zi Qi at court, taking the opportunity to seize King Hui and place him in the High Palace, intending to kill him. Qu Gu, a follower of King Hui, carried the king on his back and fled to the palace of King Zhao’s consort. Duke Bai established himself as king. After a little more than a month, it happened that Lord She came to rescue Chu. King Hui’s followers and Lord She together attacked Duke Bai and killed him. King Hui then returned to the throne. That year, Chu destroyed Chen and made it a county.

In the thirteenth year, King Fuchai of Wu grew powerful, bullied Qi and Jin, and came to attack Chu. In the sixteenth year, Yue destroyed Wu. In the forty-second year, Chu destroyed Cai. In the forty-fourth year, Chu destroyed Qi. Chu made peace with Qin. At this time, Yue had already destroyed Wu but could not govern the regions north of the Yangzi and Huai Rivers. Chu attacked eastward and extended its territory to the banks of the Si River.

In the fifty-seventh year, King Hui died, and his son, King Jian, named Zhong, succeeded to the throne.

In the first year of King Jian, he attacked northward and destroyed the state of Ju. In the eighth year, Wei Wenhou, Han Wuzi, and Zhao Huanzi began to become feudal lords.

In the twenty-fourth year, King Jian died, and his son, King Sheng, named Dang, succeeded to the throne. In the sixth year of King Sheng, bandits killed King Sheng, and his son, King Dao, named Xiongyi, succeeded to the throne. In the second year of King Dao, the Three Jins came to attack Chu, reaching Chengqiu and then returning. In the fourth year, Chu attacked Zhou. Zheng killed Ziyang. In the ninth year, Chu attacked Han, capturing Fushu. In the eleventh year, the Three Jins attacked Chu, defeating the Chu army at Daliang and Yuguan. Chu bribed Qin heavily and made peace with Qin. In the twenty-first year, King Dao died, and his son, King Su, named Zang, succeeded to the throne.

In the fourth year of King Su, Shu attacked Chu, capturing Zifang. Thereupon Chu built the Hanguan Pass to defend against Shu. In the tenth year, Wei captured Luyang from Chu. In the eleventh year, King Su died without a son, and his younger brother Xiong Liangfu was established as ruler—this was King Xuan.

In the sixth year of King Xuan, the Son of Heaven of Zhou offered congratulations to Duke Xian of Qin. Qin began to grow strong again, while the Three Jins grew even stronger. King Hui of Wei and King Wei of Qi were especially powerful. In the thirtieth year, Qin enfeoffed Shang to Wei Yang, and encroached southward upon Chu. That year, King Xuan died, and his son, King Wei, named Xiong Shang, succeeded to the throne.

In the sixth year of King Wei, King Xian of Zhou bestowed the sacrificial meat of Kings Wen and Wu upon King Hui of Qin.

In the seventh year, Tian Ying, the father of Mengchang Jun of Qi, deceived Chu. King Wei of Chu attacked Qi, defeated the Qi army at Xuzhou, and ordered Qi to expel Tian Ying. Tian Ying was very afraid. Zhang Chou deceitfully said to the King of Chu, “The reason Your Majesty was able to defeat the Qi army at Xuzhou is that Tian Panzi was not employed. This Panzi has merit for Qi, and the common people are willing to exert themselves for him. Tian Yingzi dislikes him and employed Shen Ji. This Shen Ji—the great ministers do not support him, the common people do not exert themselves for him, so Your Majesty was able to defeat them. Now if Your Majesty expels Tian Yingzi, after Tian Yingzi is expelled, Panzi will surely be employed. He will then reorganize the troops to face Your Majesty in battle, which will certainly be disadvantageous to Your Majesty.” The King of Chu therefore did not expel Tian Ying.

In the eleventh year, King Wei died, and his son, King Huai, named Xiong Huai, succeeded to the throne. When Wei heard of Chu’s mourning, it attacked Chu and captured Chu’s Xingshan.

In the first year of King Huai, Zhang Yi began to serve as chief minister of King Hui of Qin. In the fourth year, King Hui of Qin began to style himself king.

In the sixth year, Chu sent its pillar of state, Zhao Yang, to lead an army to attack Wei, defeated the Wei army at Xiangling, and captured eight cities. It then mobilized its forces to attack Qi, and the King of Qi was greatly worried about this. Chen Zhen happened to be on a mission for Qin to Qi, and the King of Qi said, "What should be done about this?" Chen Zhen said, "Your Majesty need not worry; allow me to make him withdraw his troops." So he went to see Zhao Yang and said in the camp, "I wish to hear the law of Chu: what is used to honor a man who defeats the enemy and kills their general?" Zhao Yang said, "His office is that of Supreme Pillar of State, and he is granted the highest rank of Holding the Jade Tablet." Chen Zhen said, "Is there anything more honored than this?" Zhao Yang said, "The Prime Minister." Chen Zhen said, "Now you have already become Prime Minister—this is the highest office in Chu. Allow me to use a metaphor. Someone gave a cup of wine to his retainers, and the retainers discussed among themselves, saying: 'Several of us drinking this cup will not give each one a full portion; let us draw snakes on the ground, and the one who finishes first will drink it alone.' One man said, 'My snake is finished first.' He took the cup and stood up, saying, 'I can add feet to it.' While he was adding feet, the one who finished later snatched the cup and drank it, saying, 'A snake originally has no feet; now you add feet—this is not a snake.' Now you, as the Prime Minister of Chu, attacked Wei, defeated the enemy, and killed their general; no merit is greater than this, and your office has reached the highest, with no room for advancement. Now you again mobilize troops to attack Qi. If you succeed in attacking Qi, your office and rank will be no higher than now; if you fail, you will die and your rank will be taken away, bringing harm to Chu as well—this is the saying of 'adding feet to a snake.' It is better to withdraw your troops and show kindness to Qi; this is the way to preserve completeness." Zhao Yang said, "Good." So he led his troops away.

The rulers of Yan and Han began to style themselves kings. Qin sent Zhang Yi to meet with Chu, Qi, and Wei, and they formed an alliance at Niesang.

In the eleventh year, Su Qin united the six states east of the mountains to attack Qin together, and King Huai of Chu served as the leader of the alliance. The armies reached Hangu Pass; Qin sent out troops to attack the six states, and all the six-state armies withdrew, with only Qi retreating last. In the twelfth year, King Min of Qi defeated the armies of Zhao and Wei, and Qin also defeated Han, contending with Qi for hegemony.

In the sixteenth year, Qin wanted to attack Qi, but Chu was allied with Qi in friendship, and King Hui of Qin was greatly worried about this. So he declared that Zhang Yi had been dismissed from his post as prime minister and sent Zhang Yi south to see the King of Chu, saying to him, "The one my sovereign respects most is none greater than Your Majesty, and even I, Zhang Yi, would most willingly serve as a doorkeeper at your gate, none more so than Your Majesty. The one my sovereign hates most is none greater than the King of Qi, and even I, Zhang Yi, hate none more than the King of Qi. Yet Your Majesty is on good terms with the King of Qi, so my sovereign cannot serve Your Majesty, nor can I become your doorkeeper. If Your Majesty would close the passes and break relations with Qi for my sake, then send an envoy with me to the west to take back the six hundred li of Shangyu land that Qin formerly granted to Chu—thus Qi will be weakened. In this way, you weaken Qi to the north, show kindness to Qin to the west, and possess Shangyu to enrich yourself—this is one plan that brings three benefits." King Huai was greatly delighted, so he handed over the seal of prime minister to Zhang Yi, feasted with him daily, and proclaimed, "I have regained my Shangyu land." All the ministers came to congratulate, only Chen Zhen alone expressed mourning. King Huai said, "Why?" Chen Zhen replied, "The reason Qin values Your Majesty is because Your Majesty has the support of Qi. Now, before the land is obtained, the alliance with Qi is broken first, and thus Chu becomes isolated. How would Qin value an isolated state? It will surely despise Chu. Moreover, if you first hand over the land and then break relations with Qi, then Qin’s scheme will not succeed. If you first break relations with Qi and then demand the land, you will certainly be deceived by Zhang Yi. If deceived by Zhang Yi, then Your Majesty will surely resent him. Resenting him brings about disaster from Qin to the west and cuts off relations with Qi to the north. Bringing disaster from the west and cutting off relations with the north—then the armies of both states will surely come. That is why I mourn." The King of Chu did not listen, so he sent a general to the west to receive the territory.

When Zhang Yi returned to Qin, he pretended to fall from his carriage while drunk, claimed to be ill, and did not go out for three months, so the land could not be obtained. The King of Chu said, "Does Zhang Yi think my severance of relations with Qi is not thorough enough?" So he sent a brave warrior, Song Yi, north to insult the King of Qi. The King of Qi was enraged, broke Chu’s credentials, and allied with Qin. After Qin and Qi formed their alliance, Zhang Yi then rose and had an audience, saying to the Chu general, "Why have you not gone to receive the land? From such-and-such a place to such-and-such a place, it is six li in length and width." The Chu general said, "I received orders for six hundred li, not six li." So he returned and reported to King Huai. King Huai was furious and mobilized his army to attack Qin. Chen Zhen again said, "Attacking Qin is not a good plan. It would be better to bribe Qin with a famous city and join Qin in attacking Qi, so that what we lose to Qin we recover from Qi, and our state can still be preserved. Now Your Majesty has broken relations with Qi and is pursuing blame against Qin—this will unite Qin and Qi’s alliance and bring the armies of all under heaven upon us; the state will surely suffer great harm." The King of Chu did not listen, so he broke off friendly relations with Qin and sent troops west to attack Qin. Qin also sent troops to meet the attack.

In the spring of the seventeenth year, they fought with Qin at Danyang. Qin heavily defeated the Chu army, beheading eighty thousand armored soldiers, capturing the Grand General Qu Gai, the Deputy General Feng Hou Chou, and over seventy others, and then seized the commandery of Hanzhong. King Huai of Chu was furious, so he mobilized the entire state’s army to again attack Qin; they fought at Lantian, and the Qin army heavily defeated the Chu army. Han and Wei, hearing of Chu’s distress, attacked Chu from the south, reaching Deng. When Chu heard of this, they withdrew their troops.

In the eighteenth year, Qin sent an envoy to agree to renew friendly relations with Chu and offered half of Hanzhong to make peace with Chu. The King of Chu said, "I wish to obtain Zhang Yi; I do not wish for the land." When Zhang Yi heard this, he requested to go to Chu. The King of Qin said, "Chu wants your very life; what can be done?" Zhang Yi said, "I am on good terms with Jin Shang, who is close to the King of Chu, and Jin Shang is trusted by the king’s favored consort, Zheng Xiu; whatever Zheng Xiu says, the King of Chu never fails to follow. Moreover, in my previous mission, I betrayed Chu regarding the agreement on Shangyu, and now great war has broken out between Qin and Chu, creating enmity; unless I personally apologize to the King of Chu face to face, it cannot be resolved. Besides, with Your Majesty in power, Chu should not dare to kill me. If killing me benefits the state, that is my wish." So Zhang Yi went on his mission to Chu.

When Zhang Yi arrived, King Huai of Chu refused to receive him, imprisoned him, and intended to kill him. Zhang Yi secretly bribed Jin Shang, who pleaded for him to King Huai, saying, "If you imprison Zhang Yi, Qin will surely be angered. When the feudal lords see that Chu has lost Qin’s support, they will surely despise Your Majesty." Jin Shang also said to Lady Zheng Xiu, "The King of Qin greatly cherishes Zhang Yi, and our king wants to kill him. Now Qin will bribe Chu with the six counties of Shangyong, marry a beautiful woman to the King of Chu, and send palace singing girls as dowry. The King of Chu values the land, so the Qin woman will surely be favored, and you, my lady, will certainly be pushed aside. It would be better for you to speak up and have Zhang Yi released." Zheng Xiu finally spoke to the King of Chu on Zhang Yi’s behalf and had him released. After Zhang Yi was freed, King Huai treated him well, and Zhang Yi took the opportunity to persuade the King of Chu to abandon the alliance and make peace with Qin, agreeing to a marriage alliance. After Zhang Yi left, Qu Yuan returned from a mission to Qi and admonished King Huai, saying, "Why did you not kill Zhang Yi?" King Huai regretted it and sent men to pursue Zhang Yi, but they did not catch him. In this year, King Hui of Qin died.

In the twentieth year of King Huai of Chu, King Min of Qi wished to become the leader of the Vertical Alliance and detested that Chu was allied with Qin. He therefore sent an envoy with a letter to the King of Chu, saying: "I fear that Your Majesty does not value the importance of honoring fame. Now King Hui of Qin is dead, and King Wu of Qin has succeeded him. Zhang Yi has fled to Wei, while Shu Lizi and Gongsun Yan are in power, yet Chu serves Qin. Shu Lizi curries favor with Han, and Gongsun Yan curries favor with Wei. If Chu insists on serving Qin, Han and Wei will be afraid and will surely request to join with Qin through these two men. Then Yan and Zhao will also serve Qin. If four states vie to serve Qin, Chu will become a mere commandery of Qin. Why does Your Majesty not join forces with me to subdue Han, Wei, Yan, and Zhao, form a Vertical Alliance with them, and honor the Zhou royal house, thereby resting troops and nurturing the people, and issuing commands to all under Heaven? No one will dare not to listen gladly. Then Your Majesty’s merit and fame will be achieved. If Your Majesty leads the lords in a joint campaign, you will surely defeat Qin. Your Majesty can seize Wu Pass, Shu, and the land of Hanzhong, possess the wealth of Wu and Yue, and monopolize the benefits of the Yangtze and the sea. Han and Wei will cede Shangdang, and facing the Hangu Pass to the west, Chu’s strength will exceed that of a million troops. Moreover, Your Majesty was deceived by Zhang Yi, lost the land of Hanzhong, and suffered defeat at Lantian. No one under Heaven is not filled with rage on your behalf. Yet now you would first serve Qin! I hope Your Majesty will consider this carefully."

The King of Chu had already intended to make peace with Qin. Upon seeing the letter from the King of Qi, he hesitated and referred the matter to his ministers for discussion. Some ministers advocated making peace with Qin, while others urged following Qi. Zhao Sui said: "Even if Your Majesty takes land from Yue to the east, it will not be enough to wash away the disgrace. You must take land from Qin, and only then can you wash away the disgrace before the lords. Your Majesty would do better to deepen relations with Qi and Han to elevate the status of Shu Lizi. Then Your Majesty can obtain the support of Han and Qi to seek land. Qin broke through Yiyang of Han, yet Han still serves Qin because the tombs of its former kings are at Pingyang, and Qin’s Wusui is only seventy li from there. Hence Han is especially afraid of Qin. Otherwise, if Qin attacks Sanchuan, Zhao attacks Shangdang, and Chu attacks He Wai, Han will surely perish. If Chu rescues Han, it cannot prevent Han from falling, but only Chu can preserve Han. Han has already obtained Wusui from Qin, with the Yellow River and mountains as its barriers. The gratitude it owes is to none greater than to Chu. I believe Han will serve Your Majesty with great urgency. The reason Qi trusts Han is that Gongzi Mei of Han serves as Qi’s chancellor. Han has already obtained Wusui from Qin. If Your Majesty treats them very well, and uses Qi and Han’s strength to elevate Shu Lizi, then Shu Lizi, being elevated by Qi and Han, his ruler will not dare to abandon him. Now, with Chu’s elevation added, Shu Lizi will surely speak to Qin and return the lands it took from Chu." Thereupon King Huai agreed to this. In the end, he did not ally with Qin but allied with Qi and treated Han well.

In the twenty-fourth year, he turned against Qi and allied with Qin. King Zhao of Qin had just ascended the throne, so he presented generous gifts to bribe Chu. Chu sent someone to welcome a Qin woman as a bride. In the twenty-fifth year, King Huai entered Qin to form an alliance with King Zhao of Qin and swore a covenant at Huangji. Qin also returned Shangyong to Chu. In the twenty-sixth year, Qi, Han, and Wei, because Chu had violated the Vertical Alliance and become intimate with Qin, jointly attacked Chu. Chu sent the Crown Prince as a hostage to Qin to request aid. Qin thereupon sent the guest-official Tong to lead troops to rescue Chu, and the three states withdrew their forces.

In the twenty-seventh year, a Qin grandee had a private quarrel with the Crown Prince of Chu. The Crown Prince of Chu killed him and fled back to Chu. In the twenty-eighth year, Qin then joined with Qi, Han, and Wei to attack Chu, killed the Chu general Tang Mo, seized Chongqiu from Chu, and departed. In the twenty-ninth year, Qin again attacked Chu, heavily defeating the Chu army. Twenty thousand Chu soldiers died, and the Chu general Jing Que was killed. King Huai was terrified and sent the Crown Prince as a hostage to Qi to seek peace. In the thirtieth year, Qin again attacked Chu and took eight cities. King Zhao of Qin sent a letter to the King of Chu, saying: "In the beginning, I and Your Majesty swore brotherhood, covenanted at Huangji, and the Crown Prince served as a hostage, which was extremely amicable. The Crown Prince insulted and killed my important minister, fled without apologizing, and I truly could not suppress my anger and sent troops to disturb Your Majesty’s borders. Now I hear that Your Majesty has actually sent the Crown Prince as a hostage to Qi to seek peace. Qin and Chu share borders and are neighbors, so we have formed marriage ties and been intimate for a long time. Now if Qin and Chu are not harmonious, we cannot command the lords. I wish to meet with Your Majesty at Wu Pass, make an agreement face to face, form a covenant, and then depart. This is my desire. I presume to inform your attendants." King Huai of Chu saw the letter from the King of Qin and was greatly worried. He wanted to go but feared being deceived; if he did not go, he feared Qin’s anger. Zhao Sui said: "Your Majesty should not go. Just dispatch troops and strengthen the defenses. Qin is a state of tigers and wolves; it cannot be trusted and has ambitions to swallow the lords." King Huai’s son, Zi Lan, urged King Huai to go, saying: "How can we cut off Qin’s goodwill?" So he went to meet King Zhao of Qin. King Zhao of Qin pretended to order a general to ambush troops at Wu Pass, calling himself the King of Qin. When the King of Chu arrived, they closed Wu Pass, then seized him and took him west to Xianyang. He was made to pay court at the Zhangtai Palace like a vassal, not treated with equal ceremony. King Huai of Chu was greatly enraged and regretted not having followed Zhao Sui’s advice. Qin thereupon detained King Huai of Chu and demanded that he cede the commanderies of Wu and Qianzhong. The King of Chu wanted to swear a covenant, but Qin wanted to obtain the land first. The King of Chu said angrily: "Qin deceived me and now forcibly demands that I cede land!" He refused to agree further. Qin then detained him.

The great ministers of Chu were greatly worried and discussed among themselves, saying: "Our king is in Qin and cannot return. He is being forced to cede land, while the Crown Prince is a hostage in Qi. If Qi and Qin conspire, Chu will be destroyed." They then wanted to establish a son of King Huai who was in Chu as king. Zhao Sui said: "The king and the Crown Prince are both trapped among the lords. Now, to defy the king’s command and establish a son by a concubine is inappropriate." So they feigned that King Huai had died and sent a report of mourning to Qi. King Min of Qi said to his chancellor: "It would be better to detain the Crown Prince and demand Chu’s land north of the Huai." The chancellor said: "No. If Yingdu establishes a new king, then we will be holding an empty hostage and acting unjustly before all under Heaven." Someone said: "That is not so. If Yingdu establishes a new king, we can then make a deal with that new king, saying, ‘Give me the eastern borderlands, and I will kill the Crown Prince for Your Majesty. Otherwise, I will join with the three states to establish him as king.’ Then the eastern borderlands can surely be obtained." The King of Qi ultimately adopted the chancellor’s plan and released the Crown Prince of Chu. Crown Prince Heng returned to Chu and was established as king. This was King Qingxiang. They then sent word to Qin, saying: "Relying on the blessings of the altars of soil and grain, Chu already has a king."

In the first year of King Qingxiang of Chu, Heng, Qin demanded land from King Huai but did not obtain it. Chu established a new king to oppose Qin. King Zhao of Qin was greatly enraged, dispatched troops out of Wu Pass to attack Chu, heavily defeated the Chu army, beheaded fifty thousand men, seized the city of Xi and fifteen other cities, and departed. In the second year, King Huai of Chu escaped and fled back to Chu. Qin discovered this and blocked the roads leading to Chu. King Huai was terrified, so he took a small path and fled to Zhao, seeking to return to his state. The Lord of Zhao, Wuling, was in Dai. His son, King Hui of Zhao, had just ascended the throne and was acting as ruler. He feared Qin and did not dare to receive the King of Chu. The King of Chu wanted to flee to Wei, but the Qin pursuers caught up, so he returned to Qin with the Qin envoy. King Huai then fell ill. In the third year of King Qingxiang, King Huai died in Qin. Qin returned his coffin to Chu. The people of Chu all pitied him, mourning him as they would their own kin. From this, the lords considered Qin to be unrighteous. Qin and Chu broke off relations.

In the sixth year of King Qingxiang of Chu, Qin sent Bai Qi to attack Han at Yique, achieving a great victory and beheading 240,000 men. Qin then sent a letter to the King of Chu, saying: "Chu has turned against Qin. Qin will lead the feudal lords to attack Chu and fight to the death. I hope Your Majesty will muster your troops and prepare for a decisive battle." King Qingxiang of Chu was greatly troubled and plotted to make peace with Qin again. In the seventh year, Chu went to Qin to receive a bride, and Qin and Chu again made peace.

In the eleventh year, Qi and Qin each proclaimed themselves emperor; after a little more than a month, they both abandoned the imperial titles and resumed the title of king.

In the fourteenth year, King Qingxiang of Chu met amicably with King Zhao of Qin at Wan, and they formed a marriage alliance. In the fifteenth year, the King of Chu joined with Qin, the three Jin states, and Yan to attack Qi, seizing the lands north of the Huai River. In the sixteenth year, he met amicably with King Zhao of Qin at Yan. In the autumn of that year, he again met with the King of Qin at Rang.

In the eighteenth year, a man of Chu was fond of shooting returning wild geese with a weak bow and fine string. King Qingxiang heard of this, summoned him, and questioned him. The man replied: "Your servant delights in shooting small geese and little birds with fine arrows—how is that worth mentioning to Your Majesty? Moreover, considering the vastness of Chu and Your Majesty’s wisdom, what you hunt should be far more than this. In former times, the Three Kings hunted with virtue, and the Five Hegemons hunted with war. Thus Qin, Wei, Yan, and Zhao are like small geese; Qi, Lu, Han, and Wei are like blue-headed birds; Zou, Fei, Tan, and Pi are like little birds. The rest are not worth shooting. Seeing six pairs of birds, how does Your Majesty intend to take them? Why does Your Majesty not take the sage as a bow, the brave as the string, and draw the bow at the right time to shoot them? These six pairs of birds can be taken and put into a bag. The joy from that is not just the joy of morning and evening; the gain from that is not just the profit of ducks and geese. If Your Majesty draws the bow in the morning to shoot south of Daliang in Wei, then strikes its right arm and directly connects to Han, the Central Plains' roads will be severed, and Shangcai commandery will be broken. Turning back to shoot east of Yu, untie Wei’s left elbow and strike outward at Dingtao, then Wei’s eastern outer line will be abandoned, and the two commanderies of Dasong and Fangyu can be taken. Moreover, if Wei loses both arms, it will topple; attacking Tan directly, Daliang can be taken. If Your Majesty puts away the bow at Lantai and waters the horses at the Xi River, pacifying Daliang of Wei, this is the joy of one shot. If Your Majesty truly delights in the hunt and does not tire, then take out the precious bow, replace the new string, shoot the pecking bird in the Eastern Sea, turn back and make the Great Wall a barrier, shoot East Ju in the morning, launch arrows at Miji in the evening, attack Jimo at night, and turn back to occupy the Wu Road, then the eastern part of the Great Wall will be taken, and the northern side of Mount Tai will also be seized. To the west, border Zhao; to the north, reach Yan. If the three states deploy their forces, then the Vertical Alliance can be achieved without waiting for a covenant. Gazing northward at Liaodong in Yan and looking southward to Kuaiji in Yue, this is the joy of a second shot. As for the twelve lords along the Si River, controlling the left and sweeping the right, they can all be taken in a single day. Now, Qin has broken Han, creating a lasting worry, yet it dares not hold the captured cities; attacking Wei has brought no merit, and striking Zhao has only caused loss—thus Qin and Wei’s strength is exhausted, and the former lands of Chu, Hanzhong, Xi, and Li, can be reclaimed. If Your Majesty takes out the precious bow, replaces the new string, crosses the Mou Pass, and waits for Qin to tire, then the lands east of the Xiao Mountains and within the Yellow River can be unified. After the people have labored and rested, you can face south and become king. Therefore, I say Qin is a great bird, dwelling with its back to the sea and its face to the east, its left arm occupying the southwest of Zhao, its right arm approaching Chu’s Yan and Ying, its front striking Han and Wei, its head drooping toward the Central Plains. It occupies a convenient position and advantageous terrain, flapping its wings and stirring its battle formations, covering three thousand li square—thus Qin cannot be summoned alone and shot in the night." He wished to use these words to provoke King Qingxiang, so he answered thus. King Qingxiang then summoned him for a conversation, and he said: "The former king was deceived by Qin and died in a foreign land—there is no greater grievance than this. Now, if an ordinary man has a grievance, he can still take revenge against the lord of a myriad-chariot state, as with Bai Gong and Zixu. Now Chu has territory of five thousand li and a million armored soldiers, still sufficient to leap and fight in the open fields, yet you sit idle and suffer distress. I privately think Your Majesty should not do this." Thereupon, King Qingxiang sent envoys to the feudal lords to renew the Vertical Alliance, intending to attack Qin. When Qin heard of this, it sent troops to attack Chu.

Chu wished to ally with Qi and Han to attack Qin and also sought to take advantage of the situation to plot against the Zhou house. King Nan of Zhou sent Wu Gong to say to Chu’s minister Zhao Zi: "If the three states use their forces to cut off the lands around Zhou’s suburbs for transport and present the southern vessels to Chu, I consider this improper. Killing the common lord and subjugating the hereditary ruler will not endear you to the great states; bullying the few with the many will not win the allegiance of the small states. If the great states are not close and the small states do not submit, you cannot gain fame or substance. Without fame or substance, it is not worth wearying the people and depleting resources. Having a reputation for plotting against the Zhou house is not a good way to issue commands and decrees." Zhao Zi said: "As for plotting against the Zhou house, there is no such thing. Nevertheless, why can the Zhou house not be plotted against?" Wu Gong replied: "An army is not sent to attack unless it is five times larger; a city is not besieged unless it is ten times stronger. One Zhou is equivalent to twenty Jin, as you know. Han once suffered disgrace with 200,000 troops beneath the walls of Jin, with its elite soldiers killed and its middling soldiers wounded, yet Jin was not taken. You do not have a hundred times the strength of Han to plot against Zhou—this is known to all under Heaven. If you incur enmity with the Eastern and Western Zhou and block the hearts of Zou and Lu, break off relations with Qi, and lose your reputation in the world, this matter is dangerous. Endangering the two Zhou to strengthen the Three Rivers region will certainly cause the area outside Fangcheng to be weakened by Han. How is this known? The territory of Western Zhou, cut and stretched, is no more than a hundred li. In name, it is the common lord under Heaven, but dividing its land will not enrich the state, and acquiring its people will not strengthen the army. Even if you do not attack it, in name it is still regicide. Yet ambitious lords and fond-of-attack ministers, when issuing orders and mobilizing troops, always begin and end with the Zhou house. Why is this? Because they see the ritual vessels there and desire to obtain them, forgetting the calamity of regicide. Now Han, because the ritual vessels are in Chu, I fear that the world will regard Chu as an enemy because of those vessels. Let me give a metaphor. Tiger meat is rank and foul, yet its skin benefits one, so people still attack it. If a marsh deer were draped in a tiger’s skin, people would attack it ten thousand times more than a tiger. Dividing the lands of Chu would be enough to enrich the state; diminishing the reputation of Chu would be enough to exalt the lord. Now you intend to kill and harm the common lord under Heaven, seize the ritual vessels handed down from the Three Dynasties, swallow the three-spoked, six-winged vessels, and thus tower over the lords of the age—is this not greed? The Book of Zhou says, 'If you wish to rise, do not move first.' Thus, if the ritual vessels move south, the armies will come." Thereupon, Chu’s plan was stopped and not carried out.

In the nineteenth year, Qin attacked Chu. The Chu army was defeated, and Chu ceded Shangyong and the lands north of the Han River to Qin. In the twenty-first year, Qin’s general Bai Qi captured Chu’s capital Ying, and burned the former kings’ tombs at Yiling. King Qingxiang’s army scattered, and he fought no further, retreating northeast to Chencheng. In the twenty-second year, Qin again captured Chu’s Wu commandery and Qianzhong commandery.

In the twenty-third year, King Qingxiang gathered the troops of the eastern regions, obtaining over one hundred thousand men, and then marched west to retake the fifteen cities along the Chu river that Qin had captured, forming a commandery to defend against Qin. In the twenty-seventh year, he sent thirty thousand men to help the three Jin states attack Yan. He again made peace with Qin and sent the crown prince as a hostage to Qin. Chu sent the Left Tutor to serve the crown prince in Qin.

In the thirty-sixth year, King Qingxiang fell ill, and the crown prince fled back. In autumn, King Qingxiang died, and the crown prince Xiong Yuan succeeded him—this was King Kaolie. King Kaolie appointed the Left Tutor as Lingyin, enfeoffing him at Wu, with the title Lord Chunshen.

In the first year of King Kaolie, he ceded the territory of Zhou to Qin to make peace. At this time, Chu grew even weaker.

In the sixth year, Qin besieged Handan, and Zhao urgently requested aid from Chu. Chu sent General Jing Yang to rescue Zhao. In the seventh year, they reached Xinzhong. The Qin army withdrew. In the twelfth year, King Zhaoxiang of Qin died, and the King of Chu sent Lord Chunshen to Qin to offer condolences and perform sacrifices. In the sixteenth year, King Zhuangxiang of Qin died, and King Zhao Zheng of Qin succeeded to the throne. In the twenty-second year, Chu joined the other feudal lords in a campaign against Qin but was unsuccessful and returned. Chu moved its capital eastward to Shouchun and named it Ying.

In the twenty-fifth year, King Kaolie died, and his son, King You, named Han, succeeded to the throne. Li Yuan killed Lord Chunshen. In the third year of King You, Qin and Wei attacked Chu. The Qin chancellor Lü Buwei died. In the ninth year, Qin destroyed Han. In the tenth year, King You died, and his half-brother, You, by the same mother, succeeded to the throne; this was King Ai. King Ai had been on the throne for just over two months when his elder half-brother, Fuchu, along with his faction, attacked and killed King Ai, installing Fuchu as king. In that year, Qin captured King Qian of Zhao.

In the first year of King Fuchu, Crown Prince Dan of Yan sent Jing Ke to assassinate the King of Qin. In the second year, Qin sent a general to attack Chu, inflicting a major defeat on the Chu army and seizing more than ten cities. In the third year, Qin destroyed Wei. In the fourth year, the Qin general Wang Jian defeated the Chu army at Qi and killed the Chu general Xiang Yan.

In the fifth year, the Qin generals Wang Jian and Meng Wu then breached Chu, captured King Fuchu of Chu, and destroyed the state of Chu, converting it into a commandery.

The Grand Historian says: When King Ling of Chu was convening the feudal lords at Shen, executing Qing Feng of Qi, constructing the Zhanghua Terrace, and scheming for the Nine Tripods of the Zhou, his ambition was to look down upon all under Heaven; yet when he starved to death in the house of Shen Hai, he was ridiculed by the world. His conduct was not good—how lamentable! As for power over others, can one fail to be cautious? Qi Jie (King Ping) came to the throne through turmoil, doted on the Qin woman excessively, and nearly brought ruin to the state again!

The descendants of Yuxiong were enfeoffed in Chu by the Zhou dynasty. They were situated in the remote Jingman region, traveling in rude carts and wearing ragged clothes. When they interacted with the Central Plains and established hegemony, they usurped the title of Wu. King Wen had already attacked Shen, and King Cheng also pardoned Xu. Ziwei usurped the rightful heir, and Shangchen murdered his father. Heaven sent down calamities, yet they did not repent, relying on wickedness and self-importance. King Zhao was reduced to fleeing in distress, and King Huai was forced to become a prisoner. Kings Qingxiang and Kaolie—their blessings waned in the south.