The Regulations of a King
May I ask how to govern state affairs? The answer: Promote the worthy and capable without regard to rank or seniority; dismiss the incompetent without delay; execute the chief criminals without waiting for education; transform the common people without issuing commands. When social distinctions are not yet fixed, differentiate between noble and base, superior and inferior. Even if they are descendants of kings, dukes, high officials, or scholars, if they cannot follow ritual and righteousness, classify them among the common people. Even if they are descendants of common people, if they accumulate learning, correct their conduct, and can follow ritual and righteousness, classify them among the ministers, chancellors, high officials, and scholars. Therefore, for those who engage in perverse doctrines, perverse teachings, perverse deeds, perverse talents, and for those who are fugitives or unreliable, assign them tasks and educate them, grant them a period of time to reform, encourage them with rewards, and warn them with punishments. Those who settle into their duties retain them; those who do not abandon them. For those afflicted with the five types of disabilities, the ruler supports them, assigns them work according to their abilities, provides them with clothing and food from the government, and cares for all without omission. Those whose talents and conduct run counter to the times are executed without pardon. This is called Heavenly Virtue, and it is the king’s governance.
The essential principle of governance: Treat those who come with good intentions with ritual and righteousness; treat those who come with evil intentions with punishments. When these two are clearly distinguished, then the worthy and unworthy do not mix, and right and wrong do not become chaotic. When the worthy and unworthy do not mix, heroes and great talents will arrive; when right and wrong do not become chaotic, the state will be well-ordered. If this is so, then the ruler’s reputation will daily become more illustrious, the whole world will look up to him, orders will be carried out and prohibitions heeded, and the king’s governance will be complete.
In all governance: If the ruler is severe and stern, dislikes leniency and guiding people, then his ministers will be fearful and not close to him, will conceal things and not exhaust their loyalty. If this is so, then great affairs will likely be neglected, and small affairs will likely fail. If the ruler is gentle and accommodating, likes leniency and guiding people, but has no fixed limits, then perverse doctrines will all arise, and tentative proposals will spring up in confusion. If this is so, then hearing cases will become numerous and chaotic, which in turn harms governance. Therefore, if there are laws but no discussion, then matters not covered by the laws will inevitably have loopholes. If there are offices but no communication, then matters beyond the offices’ reach will inevitably have problems. Therefore, if there are laws and discussion, offices and communication, no hidden schemes, no overlooked good deeds, and all affairs without error, this cannot be achieved except by the gentleman. Thus, fairness is the standard for handling duties; impartiality and harmony are the standards for hearing cases. Where there are laws, follow the laws; where there are no laws, handle by analogy—this is the perfect method for hearing cases. Partiality and deviation from principle are the perverse methods for hearing cases. Therefore, it is possible for good laws to exist yet chaos to arise; but for the gentleman to exist yet chaos to arise has never been heard of from ancient times to the present. An ancient text says: “Order arises from the gentleman; chaos arises from the petty man.” This is what is meant.
If status is equal, there can be no dominance; if power is equal, there can be no unity; if people are equal, they cannot be employed. Since Heaven and Earth exist, there are differences between high and low; when an enlightened king first ascends the throne, governance has its institutions. Two equally noble persons cannot serve each other; two equally base persons cannot employ each other—this is the natural principle. When power and status are equal, and likes and dislikes are the same, if resources are insufficient, there will inevitably be contention; contention leads to chaos, and chaos leads to distress. The ancient kings detested this chaos, so they established ritual and righteousness to differentiate people, causing them to have ranks of poverty and wealth, nobility and baseness, sufficient to oversee each other—this is the foundation for nourishing the world. The Book of Documents says: “To achieve order, one must be uneven.” This is what is meant.
If horses are startled while pulling the carriage, then the gentleman cannot be at ease in the carriage; if the people are frightened by governance, then the gentleman cannot be at ease in his position. If horses are startled while pulling the carriage, it is better to calm them; if the people are frightened by governance, it is better to grant them favors. Select the worthy and good, promote the loyal and reverent, encourage filial piety and brotherly respect, support orphans and widows, and relieve the poor. If this is so, then the people will be at ease with governance. When the people are at ease with governance, then the gentleman can be at ease in his position. An ancient text says: “The ruler is the boat; the people are the water. Water can support the boat, and water can also capsize it.” This is what is meant. Therefore, those who rule the people, if they desire stability, should make governance equitable and love the people; if they desire glory, should honor ritual and righteousness and respect scholars; if they desire to establish merit and fame, should exalt the worthy and employ the capable. These are the great principles of the ruler. If these three great principles are correct, then nothing else will be incorrect. If these three great principles are incorrect, then even if everything else is correct, it will be of no use. Confucius said: “When the great principles are correct and the minor principles are also correct, this is the superior ruler; when the great principles are correct and the minor principles are sometimes correct and sometimes not, this is the middling ruler; when the great principles are wrong, even if the minor principles are correct, I need not look at the rest.”
Duke Cheng of Wei and Duke Si of Wei were rulers who hoarded and calculated meticulously, yet they could not even win the people’s hearts. Zichan was a ruler who won the people’s hearts, yet he could not achieve good governance. Guan Zhong was a ruler who achieved good governance, yet he could not cultivate ritual and righteousness. Therefore, those who cultivate ritual and righteousness can become king; those who achieve good governance can become hegemon; those who win the people’s hearts can maintain stability; those who hoard and plunder will perish. Thus, the king makes the people wealthy; the hegemon makes the warriors wealthy; a barely surviving state makes its high officials wealthy; a state about to perish makes its coffers and granaries full. When coffers are full and granaries are full, but the people are impoverished, this is called the top overflowing while the bottom leaks. Internally unable to defend, externally unable to wage war, then overthrow and destruction will come immediately. Thus, I accumulate wealth and invite destruction; the enemy gains wealth and becomes strong. Hoarding and plundering are the path that invites enemies, enriches foes, destroys the state, and endangers oneself; therefore, the enlightened ruler does not do this.
The king takes the people of other states; the hegemon takes the alliances of other states; the strong ruler takes the territory of other states. He who takes the people of other states makes the feudal lords his ministers; he who takes the alliances of other states makes the feudal lords his friends; he who takes the territory of other states makes the feudal lords his enemies. He who makes the feudal lords his ministers becomes king; he who makes the feudal lords his friends becomes hegemon; he who makes the feudal lords his enemies is in danger.
One who uses force: If others defend their cities, others march out to fight, and I overcome them by force, then the harm to the people of that state will certainly be severe; if the harm to the people of that state is severe, then the people of that state will certainly hate me deeply; if the people of that state hate me deeply, they will daily think of contending with me. If others defend their cities, others march out to fight, and I overcome them by force, then the harm to my own people will certainly be severe; if the harm to my own people is severe, then my own people will certainly hate me deeply; if my own people hate me deeply, they will daily think of not fighting for me. The people of other states daily think of contending with me, while my own people daily think of not fighting for me—this is the reason why the strong become weak. Territory comes while people go; many achievements but little merit; although defenders increase, the strength for defense decreases—this is the reason why large states are weakened. The feudal lords all maintain alliances and share enmities, never forgetting their enemies, watching for the strong one’s weaknesses, and seizing upon the strong one’s decline—this is the time of danger for the strong.
One who understands the way of strength does not focus on force but considers using the Son of Heaven’s commands, preserving his own strength, and consolidating his own virtue. When strength is preserved, the feudal lords cannot weaken him; when virtue is consolidated, the feudal lords cannot harm him. When there is no king or hegemon in the world, then he can always triumph—this is one who understands the way of strength.
Those who seek to be hegemons are not like this: they open up fields, fill granaries, improve weapons and equipment, cautiously recruit and select talented and skilled scholars, and then gradually guide them with rewards and correct them with strict punishments. They restore fallen states, continue broken lineages, protect the weak, and prohibit the violent, without any ambition for annexation, so the feudal lords become close to them. They practice the principle of befriending enemies among the feudal lords, treating them with respect, so the feudal lords come to like them. The reason the feudal lords become close to them is that they do not annex; if their intention to annex becomes apparent, the feudal lords will distance themselves. The reason the feudal lords like them is that they befriend enemies among the feudal lords; if their intention to make them subjects becomes apparent, the feudal lords will turn away from them. Thus, by making clear their non-annexation conduct and faithfully adhering to the principle of befriending enemies among the feudal lords, when there is no true king or hegemon under heaven, they can always prevail: this is one who understands the way of the hegemon.
King Min of Qi was defeated by the allied forces of five states, and Duke Huan of Qi was seized by Cao Mo, a minister of Duke Zhuang of Lu. There was no other reason: they practiced the way that was not that of a true king yet sought to become king.
Those who seek to be true kings are not like this: their benevolence surpasses all under heaven, their righteousness surpasses all under heaven, and their authority surpasses all under heaven. Because their benevolence surpasses all under heaven, no one under heaven does not draw close to them; because their righteousness surpasses all under heaven, no one under heaven does not revere them; because their authority surpasses all under heaven, no one under heaven dares to oppose them. Using unmatched authority to assist the way that makes people submit, they thus prevail without fighting, achieve without attacking, and have all under heaven submit without expending military force: this is one who understands the way of the true king. Those who understand these three conditions can become king if they wish to become king, can become hegemon if they wish to become hegemon, and can become strong if they wish to become strong.
The talents employed by the true king: using ritual and righteousness to adorn conduct, handling government affairs according to analogical reasoning, being so clear-sighted as to perceive the tip of a hair, and adapting to circumstances without becoming impoverished—this is called having a foundation. These are the talents employed by the true king.
The system of the true king: the principles of governance do not exceed the Three Dynasties of Xia, Shang, and Zhou, and the laws do not deviate from the contemporary sovereign; principles exceeding the Three Dynasties are called vague and impracticable, and laws deviating from the contemporary sovereign are called unorthodox. Garments have regulations, palaces have standards, attendants have numbers, and vessels for funerals and sacrifices all have gradations. As for music, all that is not in accord with proper sounds is abolished; as for colors, all that does not match ancient patterns is prohibited; as for vessels and implements, all that do not conform to ancient norms are destroyed. This is called restoring antiquity—this is the system of the true king.
The judgments of the true king: those without virtue are not given honor, those without ability are not given office, those without merit are not granted rewards, and those without guilt are not subjected to punishment. In the court, there are no persons who obtain office by luck; among the common people, there are no persons who survive by luck. They honor the worthy and employ the talented, so that ranks and positions leave no one out; they punish the cunning and prohibit the violent, so that penalties are not excessive. The common people clearly understand that doing good at home can lead to rewards at court, and doing evil in secret will lead to punishment in the open. This is called fixed judgments. These are the judgments of the true king.
The laws of the true king: setting graded taxes, managing government affairs, and measuring all things to nourish the myriad people. Fields are taxed at one-tenth; at border passes and markets, only inspection is conducted without taxation; mountains, forests, lakes, and marshes are opened and closed seasonally without taxation. Taxes are levied according to the quality of the land. Tribute is collected according to the distance of the roads. Goods and grain are circulated without stagnation, allowing them to be transported to each other, so that within the four seas, it is like one family. Thus, those nearby do not hide their talents, those far away do not resent their toil, and no remote or isolated state fails to come and serve diligently and live in peace. This is called being the lord of the people. These are the laws of the true king.
In the northern regions, there are swift horses and hunting dogs, but the Central Plains can obtain, raise, and use them. In the southern regions, there are feathers, ivory, rhinoceros hide, copper ore, and cinnabar, but the Central Plains can obtain and use them as wealth. In the eastern regions, there are purple shells, fish, and salt, but the Central Plains can obtain and use them for clothing and food. In the western regions, there are leather and yak tails, but the Central Plains can obtain and use them. Thus, those living by the water have sufficient timber, those living in the mountains have sufficient fish, farmers do not carve or fire pottery yet have sufficient tools and utensils, and artisans and merchants do not till fields yet have sufficient grain. So tigers and leopards are fierce, yet the noble man can strip their hides for use. Thus, all that heaven covers and earth sustains gives full play to their strengths and exhausts their uses, above to adorn the worthy and below to nourish the people and bring them peace. This is called the great divine achievement. The Odes say: "Heaven raised up the high Mount Qi, and King Tai opened it up; King Tai founded the foundation, and King Wen stabilized it." This speaks of this principle.
Use categories to govern the multitude of things, and use fundamental principles to direct the myriad affairs. The beginning is the end, and the end is the beginning, like a ring without an endpoint; if this principle is abandoned, all under heaven will decline. Heaven and earth are the origin of life; ritual and righteousness are the origin of governance; the noble man is the origin of ritual and righteousness; practicing ritual and righteousness, carrying them through, accumulating and esteeming them, and deeply loving them—this is the origin of the noble man. Thus, heaven and earth give birth to the noble man, and the noble man governs heaven and earth; the noble man is the equal of heaven and earth, the governor of the myriad things, and the parent of the people. Without the noble man, heaven and earth cannot be governed, ritual and righteousness have no leader, above there is no lord and teacher, below there is no father and son—this is called the greatest chaos. The relationship between ruler and minister, father and son, elder and younger brother, husband and wife—the beginning is the end, and the end is the beginning, sharing the same principle as heaven and earth, and enduring as long as the ten thousand generations—this is called the greatest foundation. Thus, mourning and sacrifice, court visits and diplomatic missions, and military affairs share the same principle; honoring and debasing, executing and pardoning, giving and taking away share the same principle; the ruler being like a ruler, the minister like a minister, the father like a father, the son like a son, the elder brother like an elder brother, the younger brother like a younger brother share the same principle; the farmer being like a farmer, the scholar like a scholar, the artisan like an artisan, the merchant like a merchant share the same principle.
Water and fire have qi but no life; plants and trees have life but no awareness; birds and beasts have awareness but no righteousness; humans have qi, have life, have awareness, and also have righteousness, and so are the most noble under heaven. Human strength is not as great as that of an ox, and their running is not as fast as that of a horse, yet oxen and horses are used by humans—why is this? The answer says: Humans can form groups, while they cannot. Why can humans form groups? The answer says: Because they have hierarchical distinctions. Why can hierarchical distinctions be put into practice? The answer says: Because they have righteousness. Thus, using righteousness to create distinctions leads to harmony, harmony leads to unity, unity leads to increased strength, increased strength leads to might, and might leads to the ability to overcome all things; thus, houses and palaces can be dwelt in. Therefore, being able to follow the four seasons, shape all things, and benefit everyone under heaven comes from no other cause than hierarchical distinctions and righteousness.
Thus, as long as humans live, they cannot be without groups; if groups lack hierarchical distinctions, they will contend, contention leads to chaos, chaos leads to dispersal, dispersal leads to weakness, and weakness leads to an inability to overcome all things; thus, houses and palaces cannot be dwelt in—this is to say that one cannot abandon ritual and righteousness for even a moment. Being able to serve one's parents with ritual and righteousness is called filial piety; being able to serve one's elder brother with ritual and righteousness is called fraternal respect; being able to serve one's ruler with ritual and righteousness is called obedience; being able to employ one's subordinates with ritual and righteousness is called being a ruler.
The ruler is one who is skilled at forming groups. When the way of forming groups is appropriate, then all things are arranged suitably, the six domestic animals all flourish, and all living beings attain their proper fates. Thus, if nurturing and growth are timely, the six domestic animals multiply; if felling and planting are timely, trees and grasses flourish; if government decrees are issued at the proper time, then the people are unified, and the worthy submit.
The regulations of the sage king are as follows: When grasses and trees are flowering and fruiting in full growth, axes are not permitted to enter the mountains and forests, so as not to cut short their lives or interrupt their growth. When turtles, alligators, fish, loaches, and eels are laying eggs, fishing nets and poisons are not permitted to be cast into ponds and marshes, so as not to cut short their lives or interrupt their growth. Plowing in spring, weeding in summer, harvesting in autumn, and storing in winter—these four tasks are not missed in their proper seasons, thus the five grains are never exhausted, and the people have surplus grain. Ponds, lakes, rivers, and marshes are strictly regulated according to the seasons for prohibiting fishing, thus fish and turtles abound in plenty, and the people have surplus goods. Logging and cultivation are not missed in their proper seasons, thus the mountains and forests are not denuded, and the people have surplus timber.
The function of the sage king is this: Above, he clearly observes the patterns of heaven; below, he properly disposes of the advantages of earth; he fills all between heaven and earth, and extends his influence over the ten thousand things. He is hidden yet manifest, brief yet enduring, narrow yet broad, divinely great yet supremely simple. Thus it is said: One who unifies the ten thousand things with ritual and propriety and also unifies himself with ritual and propriety is called a sage.
Arranging offices: The Chief of Sacrifices manages the number of sacrificial victims for guests, sacrifices, and feasts. The Minister of Education manages the numbers of various clans, city walls, and the production of utensils and implements. The Minister of War manages the numbers of troops, armor and weapons, chariots and infantry. Revising laws and ordinances, examining poems and musical compositions, prohibiting licentious sounds, rectifying them according to the seasons, and ensuring that barbarian customs and depraved music dare not disturb the elegant music—this is the duty of the Grand Musician. Building dikes and bridges, dredging ditches and waterways, draining accumulated water, stabilizing water storage, opening and closing them according to the seasons, so that even in years of poor harvests and floods or droughts, the people have places to plow and cultivate—this is the duty of the Minister of Works. Observing the high and low of the terrain, inspecting the fertility and barrenness of the soil, arranging the order of planting the five grains, assessing the farming achievements of the peasants, carefully storing grain, rectifying them according to the seasons, and making the peasants simple and diligent with few clever tricks—this is the duty of the Agricultural Officer. Revising fire prevention regulations, nurturing grasses, trees, fish, turtles, and all products in mountains, forests, lakes, and marshes, prohibiting or opening access according to the seasons, so that state resources are sufficient and goods are not exhausted—this is the duty of the Game and Forest Warden. Governing the districts and villages, demarcating market areas and dwellings, raising the six domestic animals, studying the arts of cultivation, encouraging moral instruction, promoting filial piety and brotherly respect, rectifying them according to the seasons, and making the people compliant with orders and content to dwell in their villages—this is the duty of the Village Officer. Examining the various craftsmen, scrutinizing the tasks of the seasons, distinguishing the fineness and coarseness of workmanship, emphasizing sturdiness and convenience, so that implements and utensils are complete, and that carved and ornamented objects dare not be made privately at home—this is the duty of the Artisan Officer. Observing yin and yang, divining omens, drilling tortoise shells and arranging yarrow stalks, presiding over sacrifices and selecting among the five methods of divination, knowing good fortune, misfortune, calamities, and auspicious signs—this is the duty of the hunched witches and lame diviners. Sweeping roads, leveling thoroughfares, strictly guarding against thieves and robbers, stabilizing market regulations, rectifying them according to the seasons, and making travelers safe while goods circulate—this is the duty of the Market Officer. Suppressing the violent, preventing the wicked, using the five punishments to penalize criminals, so that the fierce and strong are transformed and evil deeds no longer occur—this is the duty of the Minister of Justice. Taking government and teaching as the foundation, rectifying laws and regulations, broadly hearing opinions and assessing them in due time, weighing their merits and granting corresponding rewards, carefully rectifying them in due season, and making the hundred officials diligent and devoted while the people are not lazy—this is the duty of the Prime Minister. Establishing ritual and music, rectifying one's own conduct, spreading moral instruction, beautifying customs, comprehensively covering and harmoniously unifying all—this is the duty of the Feudal Lords. Perfecting virtue, reaching the highest realm, fully realizing the principles of ritual and propriety, unifying the world, managing the smallest details, and making all under heaven submissive, compliant, and obedient—this is the duty of the King. Thus, if government is chaotic, it is the fault of the Prime Minister; if the state's customs are corrupt, it is the error of the Feudal Lords; if the world is not unified and the feudal lords rebel, then the King is not the right person.
Possessing certain conditions allows one to become king; possessing certain conditions allows one to become hegemon; possessing certain conditions allows one to survive; possessing certain conditions leads to ruin. In governing a state with ten thousand war chariots, the establishment of awe-inspiring strength, the attainment of a good reputation, the submission of enemies, and whether the state is safe or endangered, good or bad—the key lies in oneself, not in others. Becoming king, becoming hegemon, surviving in safety, or facing danger and ruin—the key lies in oneself, not in others. If one's awe-inspiring strength is insufficient to intimidate neighboring enemy states, and one's reputation is insufficient to be renowned throughout the world, then the state cannot stand alone—can it avoid disaster? If the world is threatened by violent states, and yet one's heart does not desire this, even if one daily associates and acts with a tyrant like Jie, it does no harm to becoming a Yao. This is not the key to achieving merit and fame, nor is it the foundation of survival or ruin. The key to achieving merit and fame, the foundation of survival or ruin, must surely lie in the moments when one's heart is joyful, abundant, sincere, and single-minded. If one truly treats one's state as a place to become king and acts accordingly, one becomes king; if one treats one's state as a place of danger and ruin and acts accordingly, one faces danger and ruin. When the state's strength is abundant, maintain a neutral position, without bias, neither engaging in vertical alliances nor horizontal coalitions, quietly keeping troops inactive, and observe the violent states contending with each other. Then, cultivate government and teaching, examine ritual and rhythm, sharpen the people—when this is done, the army becomes the strongest under heaven. Then, cultivate benevolence and righteousness, exalt lofty ritual and propriety, rectify laws and regulations, select the worthy and good, nurture the people—when this is done, the reputation becomes the finest under heaven. Let power be increased, the army be strong, and the reputation be fine. Even Yao and Shun in unifying the world could not add a single hair's breadth more than this.
Those who engage in scheming, subversion, and overthrow are dismissed and repelled, then the worthy, wise, and those who understand ritual and righteousness will naturally advance and be employed. When penalties and government decrees are just and balanced, the people are harmonious, and the country’s customs are frugal, then the army is strong, city defenses are solid, and enemy states naturally submit. When one devotes effort to agriculture as the foundation, accumulates wealth and goods, and does not forget to prevent waste, scattering, and squandering, this causes all the officials and people to act according to regulations, thus wealth accumulates, and the country naturally becomes prosperous. When these three aspects are all achieved, the world will submit, and the rulers of violent states naturally cannot mobilize their armies to attack. Why is this? Because they have no one willing to follow them. Those who follow them must be their people. Their people become close to us, rejoicing as toward parents, loving us as if we were fragrant orchids; when they look back at their own ruler, it is like seeing fire and blades, terrifying, hating him as if he were an enemy. Even if those people’s natures were as violent as Jie or Zhi, how could they be willing to do what they detest, to harm those they love? Their people have already been won over by us. Therefore, the ancients, by possessing one state, could seize the world—not by personally going to other states to act, but by cultivating good governance in their own state, so that none in the world were unwilling to submit. In this way, they could execute tyrants and suppress the strong. Thus, when the Duke of Zhou campaigned southward, the northern states complained, saying, “Why does he not come to us alone?” When he campaigned eastward, the western states complained, saying, “Why does he leave us behind?” Who could still fight against such a ruler? One who peacefully governs his state in this manner can become a true king. In times of prosperity, he calmly rests his troops and nourishes the people, shows kindness to the commoners, opens up fields, fills granaries, facilitates reserves for future use, and carefully recruits, selects, and examines those with talent and skill. Then he gradually guides them with rewards, guards against them with strict penalties, and chooses among the scholars those who understand affairs, letting them lead and implement these measures. Thus, the state will be filled with accumulated wealth and goods, equipment will be repaired, and material resources will be sufficient. As for weapons, armor, and instruments, those in a violent state will daily be exposed, damaged, and broken in the wilderness; we will repair them, care for them, and store them safely in treasuries. As for goods, currency, grain, and millet, those in a violent state will daily be abandoned, scattered, and wasted in the fields; we will now store, collect, and gather them in granaries. As for scholars with talent, skill, who can serve as assistants, who are strong and brave and can act as claws and teeth, those in a violent state will daily be frustrated and exhausted in battle; we will now gather them, examine them, and train them in the court. In this way, the violent state daily accumulates ruin, while we daily accumulate perfection; the violent state daily accumulates poverty, while we daily accumulate wealth; the violent state daily accumulates toil, while we daily accumulate ease. Between ruler and ministers, superiors and subordinates, the violent state will daily become harsh and estranged, hating each other; we will daily be sincere and devoted, becoming close and loving to each other. In this manner, we await their decline. One who peacefully governs his state in this way can become a hegemon. In personal conduct, following mediocre customs; in actions, following mediocre precedents; in appointing people for advancement and demotion, nobility and lowliness, selecting mediocre scholars; in treating subordinates and the people, being generous and kind—in this way, the state can survive in safety. In personal conduct, being frivolous and coarse; in actions, being indecisive; in appointing people for advancement and demotion, nobility and lowliness, selecting those who are flattering, clever, and frivolous; in treating subordinates and the people, being fond of seizing and encroaching—in this way, the state becomes endangered. In personal conduct, being arrogant and violent; in actions, engaging in scheming and subversion; in appointing people for advancement and demotion, nobility and lowliness, selecting those who are treacherous, deceitful, and depraved; in treating subordinates and the people, being fond of using their utmost strength yet slighting their merits, fond of exploiting their taxes yet forgetting their foundation—in this way, the state perishes. These five grades must be carefully chosen, for they are the conditions for becoming a true king, a hegemon, surviving in safety, being endangered, or perishing. Those who choose well can subdue others; those who choose poorly will be subdued by others. Those who choose well can become a true king; those who choose poorly will perish. The difference between the true king and the one who perishes, between subduing others and being subdued by others, is too vast.