Book of Han, Volume 29
Zizhi Tongjian, Volume 037
[Han Record 29] From the year Jisi () to the year Jiaxu (), six years total.
Wang Mang’s Zhongguo First Year (Jisi, 9 AD)
Spring, first month, first day: Wang Mang led the dukes, marquises, ministers, and officials, bearing the seal and ribbon of the Empress Dowager, and presented them to the Grand Empress Dowager, complying with the auspicious omens and abolishing the Han dynasty’s title.
Initially, Wang Mang married the granddaughter of the late Chancellor Wang Xin (䜣) and daughter of Yichun Marquis Wang Xian () as his empress; she bore him four sons. Wang Yu and Wang Huo had previously been executed; Wang An was quite muddled, so Wang Mang established Wang Lin as the Crown Prince and Wang An as Xinjia Pi (a title). He enfeoffed Wang Yu’s six sons as dukes. A general amnesty was granted throughout the empire.
Wang Mang then used a written edict to enfeoff the child Liu Ying () as Ding’an Duke, granting him ten thousand households and a fief of a hundred li square. Within his fief, ancestral temples of the Han dynasty were established, and he was allowed to use his own calendar and ceremonial colors, like the descendants of the Zhou dynasty. The Empress Xiao Ping () was made Ding’an Grand Empress Dowager. After reading the edict, Wang Mang personally took the child’s hand, wept, and sobbed, saying: “In ancient times, the Duke of Zhou acted as regent and ultimately returned the throne to the enlightened King Cheng. Now I alone am compelled by the majestic command of the August Heaven and cannot fulfill my wish!” He lamented for a long time. The Zhong Fu (chief tutor) led the child down the hall, facing north to declare himself a subject. All the officials stood in attendance, and none were unmoved.
Further, according to the Golden Box (Jin Gui, a celestial book), he enfeoffed and appointed assisting ministers: The Grand Tutor and Left Supporter Wang Shun () was made Grand Preceptor and enfeoffed as Anxin Duke; the Grand Minister of Education Ping Yan () was made Grand Tutor and enfeoffed as Jiuxin Duke; the Junior Tutor and Xihe Liu Xiu (, also known as Liu Xin) was made State Preceptor and enfeoffed as Jiaxin Duke; Ai Zhang () of Guanghan Zitong was made State General and enfeoffed as Meixin Duke. These were the Four Assistants, ranking above the Three Dukes. The Grand Protector and Rear Supporter Zhen Han () was made Grand Marshal and enfeoffed as Chengxin Duke; the Bujin Marquis Wang Xun () was made Grand Minister of Education and enfeoffed as Zhangxin Duke; the Infantry General Wang Yi () was made Grand Minister of Works and enfeoffed as Longxin Duke. These were the Three Dukes. The Tai’e, Right Supporter, and Grand Minister of Works Zhen Feng () was made Gengshi General and enfeoffed as Guangxin Duke; Wang Xing () of Jingzhao was made Guard General and enfeoffed as Fengxin Duke; the Light Chariot General Sun Jian () was made State-Establishing General and enfeoffed as Chengxin Duke; Wang Sheng () of Jingzhao was made Forward General and enfeoffed as Chongxin Duke. These were the Four Generals. Altogether, there were eleven dukes.
Wang Xing was originally a city gate clerk; Wang Sheng was a baker. Wang Mang, following the celestial omens, sought out over a dozen people with matching surnames, and these two matched the physiognomic divinations. They were promoted directly from commoners to office to demonstrate divine intent. On this day, he enfeoffed and appointed several hundred officials as ministers, palace attendants, and secretaries. All those surnamed Liu who served as commandery governors were reassigned as remonstrance officials.
He renamed the Mingguang Palace as Ding’an Hall for the Ding’an Grand Empress Dowager to reside in; the office of the Grand Herald (Da Honglu) was made the residence of the Ding’an Duke. All were set with gate guards and overseers. He ordered that the wet nurse must not speak with the child, and kept him constantly within four walls, so that by the time he grew up, he could not recognize the six domestic animals. Later, Wang Mang married the granddaughter of Wang Yu to him.
Wang Mang issued edicts commanding each department to perform its duties, like the wording of canonical documents. He established the Grand Marshal’s Siyun, the Grand Minister of Education’s Sizhi, and the Grand Minister of Works’ Siruo, each with the rank of Guqing (sole minister). He renamed the Grand Minister of Agriculture as Xihe, later as Nayen; the Grand Director of Trials as Zuoshi; the Grand Master of Ceremonies as Zhicheng; the Grand Herald as Dianyue; the Privy Treasurer as Gonggong; the Waterways Commandant as Yuyu. These, along with the Three Dukes’ departmental ministers, were each subordinate to the Three Dukes. He set up twenty-seven Grand Masters and eighty-one Primary Officials, each overseeing the various duties of the central capital offices. He also renamed the Guanglu Xun and others as the Six Supervisors, all with the rank of Shangqing. He renamed commandery governors as Da Yin (Grand Administrators), commandery commandants as Da Wei (Grand Commandants), and county magistrates as Zai (Governors). The Changle Palace was renamed the Changle Chamber; Chang’an was renamed Chang’an. All other officials, palaces, chambers, commanderies, and counties were renamed, too numerous to list. He enfeoffed those of the Wang clan in the Qicui mourning degree as marquises, those in the Dagong degree as earls, those in the Xiaogong degree as viscounts, and those in the Sima degree as barons; their daughters were all called “Ren.” For males, the character “Mu” () was used; for females, “Long” () as titles. He said: “The Han dynasty’s feudal lords were sometimes called kings, and the barbarians of the four quarters did the same, violating the classical model and not conforming to unity. The titles of all feudal kings should be changed to dukes; the barbarians of the four quarters who usurped the title of king should all be changed to marquises.” Thus, twenty-two Han feudal kings were all reduced to dukes, and one hundred eighty-one princes were all reduced to viscounts; later, they were all stripped of their titles.
Wang Mang further enfeoffed the descendants of the Yellow Emperor, Shao Hao, Zhuan Xu, Di Ku, Yao, Shun, the Xia dynasty, the Shang dynasty, the Zhou dynasty, as well as Gao Yao and Yi Yin, as dukes and marquises, ordering them each to maintain their ancestral sacrifices.
Relying on the great enterprise of peace inherited from the Han, with abundant treasuries and officials, submission of all barbarians, and stability under heaven, Wang Mang had all this in his grasp. Yet his heart was still unsatisfied, considering the Han system too narrow and wishing to replace it with a more expansive one. He thus proclaimed himself a descendant of the Yellow Emperor and of Yu Shun, tracing back to the grandson of King Jian of Qi, Prince Ji Bei Tian An (), who lost his state. The people of Qi called his family the Wang (kingly) clan, so he took Wang as his surname. Therefore, he made the Yellow Emperor the first ancestor and Yu Shun the progenitor. He posthumously honored Chen Hu Gong as Chen Hu King, Tian Jing Zhong () as Qi Jing King, and Ji Bei Prince Tian An as Ji Bei Min King. He established five ancestral temples and four close-kin temples. Throughout the empire, the five surnames Yao, Gui, Chen, Tian, and Wang were all considered imperial clans, exempt from taxes and corvée for generations, bearing no obligations. He enfeoffed Chen Chong and Tian Feng as marquises to maintain the sacrifices for the descendants of Hu King and Jing King.
All the provincial governors and commandery governors, because of their loyalty and filial piety in suppressing the rebellions of Zhai Yi and Zhao Ming earlier, leading their provinces and commanderies, were enfeoffed: provincial governors as barons, commandery governors as Fu Cheng (). The Han Gao Temple was made the Wen Zu Temple. The Han dynasty’s parks, mausoleums, and temples within the capital were not abolished; sacrifices continued as before. All those surnamed Liu were not relieved of their tax exemptions, which lasted for their lifetimes; provincial governors repeatedly offered condolences, ensuring they were not wronged or oppressed.
Because the character “Liu” () was composed of “Mao” (), “Jin” (), and “Dao” (), Wang Mang issued an edict that the first-month amulet () and the blade of the gold knife () coin could not be used. He thus abolished the wrong-blade knife, the contract-blade knife, and the five-zhu coins, and cast new small coins, six fen in diameter, weighing one zhu, with the inscription “Small Coin Value One.” These, together with the earlier “Large Coin Fifty,” became two types of currency circulating simultaneously. To prevent private minting, he prohibited the carrying of copper and charcoal.
Summer, fourth month: Xu Xiang Marquis Liu Kuai () gathered several thousand followers and raised troops in his fief. Liu Kuai’s elder brother, Liu Yin (), was originally the Han Jiaodong King and was now Fu Chong Duke. Liu Kuai attacked Jimo; Liu Yin closed the city gates and surrendered himself to prison. Officials and commoners resisted Liu Kuai. Liu Kuai fled in defeat and died at Changguang. Wang Mang pardoned Liu Yin and increased his fief to ten thousand households, a hundred li square.
Wang Mang said: “In ancient times, each man had a hundred mu of land, and a tax of one-tenth was levied, so the state was sufficient, the people wealthy, and songs of praise arose. The Qin dynasty destroyed the sage kings’ system and abolished the well-field system, leading to land concentration, greed and baseness springing up. The strong possessed thousands of mu of land, while the weak had not even a place to stand an awl. They also established a market for slaves, herding them with cattle and horses, subject to the control of commoners and subjects, arbitrarily deciding their lives, violating the principle that ‘of the natures of heaven and earth, humanity is most noble.’ The Han dynasty reduced the land tax to one-thirtieth, but there were always additional levies, and even the sick and disabled had to pay. Powerful families encroached and bullied, seizing fields and forcibly collecting rents. In name, the tax was one-thirtieth, but in reality, it was one-tenth of five. Thus, the rich had surplus grain for their dogs and horses, acting arrogantly and doing evil; the poor could not even eat chaff and husks, reduced to poverty and committing fraud. All fell into crime, and punishments could not be stopped. Now, I order that the empire’s fields be made ‘king’s fields’ and slaves be made ‘private dependents,’ and neither may be bought or sold. Families with fewer than eight males whose fields exceed one well (nine hundred mu) must distribute the surplus to the nine clans, neighbors, and fellow villagers. Those originally without fields who now should receive fields shall follow the regulations. Anyone who dares to criticize the sacred well-field system, act lawlessly, or delude the masses shall be exiled to the remote border regions, to resist demons, following the precedent of the Imperial Progenitor Yu Shun!”
In autumn, the emperor sent the Five Might General Wang Qi and eleven others to promulgate forty-two talismanic texts throughout the realm: five items of virtuous omens, twenty-five of talismanic decrees, and twelve of auspicious responses. The Five Might Generals bore the talismanic texts, carrying seal ribbons. For all kings, marquises, and below, as well as officials whose titles had been changed, extending outward to the Xiongnu, the Western Regions, and distant barbarian tribes, they bestowed new dynasty seal ribbons on the spot, while simultaneously reclaiming the original Han seal ribbons. A general amnesty was declared for the empire. The Five Might Generals rode in "Qian-pattern" carriages, drawn by "Kun-six" horses, with pheasant tails affixed to their backs, their attire exceedingly magnificent. Each general was assigned five marshals; the generals held the credentials, while the marshals held the banners. Those dispatched eastward reached Xuantu, Lelang, Gaogouli, and Fuyu; those dispatched southward crossed the border passes, passed through Yizhou, and changed the King of Gouting to a marquis; those dispatched westward reached the Western Regions, changing all their kings to marquises; those dispatched northward reached the Xiongnu court, bestowing the seal of the Chanyu, altering the Han seal inscription by removing the character "xi" (imperial seal) and replacing it with "zhang" (seal of office).
In winter, thunder rumbled, and the tung trees blossomed.
Chen Chong, the Marquis of Tongmu, was appointed as the Director of Mandates, overseeing the surveillance of officials from the highest ranks down. Further, Cui Fa, the Marquis of Shuofu, and others were appointed as generals of the Central City and the Four Passes, responsible for the twelve city gates and the strategic points at Raoliu, Yangtou, Yaomian, and Qianlong, all bearing the title "Five Might" as a prefix.
Additionally, fifty Remonstrance Officials were dispatched to the commanderies and kingdoms to cast coins.
That year, Zhending and Changshan experienced heavy rains and hailstorms.
Second Year of the Shijianguo Era of Wang Mang (Gengwu, 10 AD)
In spring, the second month, a general amnesty was declared for the empire.
The seventy-two Five Might Generals and Marshals returned to the capital to report on their missions. The Han feudal kings who had been reduced to dukes all surrendered their seal ribbons and became commoners, with none disobeying the orders. Only the former King of Guangyang, Liu Jia, for presenting talismanic texts; the King of Lu, Liu Min, for presenting a divine book; and the King of Zhongshan, Liu Chengdu, for presenting a text praising Wang Mang's virtue, were all enfeoffed as marquises.
Ban Gu commented: In ancient times, the Zhou dynasty enfeoffed eight hundred states, of which over fifty shared the same surname. This was to draw close to relatives and honor the worthy, a matter that affected prosperity and decline, deepening roots and strengthening foundations, making them an unshakable base. Thus, in times of flourishing, the Zhou and Shao assisted in governance, achieving a state where punishments were set aside; in times of decline, the Five Hegemons supported the weak and collectively defended them; the world acknowledged them as the common sovereign, and the powerful dared not topple them. After over eight hundred years, when their mandate was exhausted and virtue declined, they were reduced to commoners but lived out their natural lifespans. The Qin dynasty mocked the Three Dynasties, usurped the imperial title and called themselves emperors, yet their sons and brothers remained commoners, with no internal support from flesh and bone as roots, and no external barrier of even a foot of land to shield them. Chen Sheng and Wu Guang rose up with wooden clubs, and Liu Bang and Xiang Yu subsequently destroyed them. Thus, it is said that the Zhou exceeded its allotted number of years, while the Qin did not reach its limit—this was due to the circumstances of their power.
When the Han dynasty was first established, taking warning from the Qin's rapid collapse due to isolation, it honored the imperial sons and brothers, grandly enfeoffing nine feudal kingdoms. From east of Yanmen to Liaoyang, the states of Yan and Dai were established; south of Changshan, east of the Taihang range's bend, crossing the Yellow River and Ji River, gradually approaching the sea, the states of Qi and Zhao were established; in the region of the Gu and Si Rivers, encompassing Mount Gui and Mount Meng, the states of Liang and Chu were established; eastward encircling the Yangzi River and lakes, approaching Kuaiji, the states of Jing and Wu were established; northward bounded by the Huai River's banks, encompassing Mount Lu and Mount Heng, the state of Huainan was established; along the southern banks of the Han River, stretching to the Jiuyi Mountains, the state of Changsha was established. The territories of the feudal kingdoms were contiguous, encircling the court on its east, south, and north sides, externally connecting with the Xiongnu and the Yue peoples. The territories directly administered by the Son of Heaven comprised the Three Rivers, Dong Commandery, Yingchuan, and Nanyang, from west of Jiangling to Ba Commandery and Shu Commandery, north from Yunzhong to Longxi, plus the capital and the area under the Neishi, totaling fifteen commanderies; the fiefs of princesses and marquises were mostly located within these commanderies. Yet the great feudal states spanned commanderies and prefectures, connecting dozens of cities, with their palaces and official systems matching those of the capital—this could be said to be overcorrecting a bend beyond measure.
Nevertheless, when Emperor Gaozu laid the foundation, he was busy without respite; Emperor Xiaohui's reign was brief; Empress Lü ruled as a female sovereign, yet the empire was peaceful, without worries of rebellion or insurrection, and they ultimately succeeded in eliminating the troubles of the Lü clan and achieving the accomplishments of Emperor Taizong (Emperor Wen of Han) through reliance on the feudal lords' strength. However, the feudal lords originally had strong foundations, and later their power overflowed to excess; the lesser ones became licentious and violated the law, while the greater ones turned perverse and rebellious, leading to their own deaths and the extinction of their states. Thus, Emperor Wen divided Qi and Zhao, Emperor Jing reduced Wu and Chu, and Emperor Wu promulgated the "Enfeoffment of Sons" decree, causing the feudal states to split apart on their own. From then on, Qi was divided into seven states, Zhao into six, Liang into five, and Huainan into three. When imperial princes were first enfeoffed, the larger states had no more than a dozen cities. The states of Changsha, Yan, and Dai, though retaining their old names, no longer had northern or southern borders. Emperor Jing encountered the Rebellion of the Seven States, suppressed and diminished the feudal lords, reducing and abolishing their official posts. During Emperor Wu's reign, there were the rebellions of the King of Hengshan and the King of Huainan, so the Law of Left Officials was established and the Law of Attachment and Embellishment was instituted; the feudal lords could only enjoy the tax revenues from their fiefs and could not participate in government affairs. By the time of Emperors Ai and Ping, the feudal lords were all descendants of bloodlines, with distant kinship ties, raised in the deep palace, not respected by the gentry and common people, their power and influence no different from wealthy households. Moreover, the reigning emperors had short reigns, and the succession was interrupted three times. Therefore, Wang Mang knew that the Han dynasty was internally and externally in decline, with both root and branch weakened, and without scruple, he conceived treacherous intentions. Leveraging the Empress Dowager's power, borrowing the names of Yi Yin and the Duke of Zhou, he monopolized power and wielded authority in the court, manipulating the empire without stepping down from the hall. Once his treacherous schemes succeeded, he assumed the position of facing south as sovereign, separately dispatching the officials of the Five Might Generals, racing by courier throughout the empire, promulgating talismanic texts. The Han feudal kings kowtowed to the ground, offering their seals, fearing only to lag behind; some even praised and flattered to seek favor and curry grace—was this not lamentable!
The National Tutor, Liu Xiu (Liu Xin), submitted a memorial, saying: "The Zhou dynasty had the office of the Quanfu (Treasury), which purchased unsold goods and lent to those who desired them. This is what the Book of Changes means by 'managing wealth, rectifying speech, and prohibiting the people from doing evil.'" Wang Mang then issued an edict, saying: "The Rites of Zhou has a system of credit and loans; the Yueyu contains methods of the Five Equalisations; the commentaries each have management measures. Now, the establishment of credit and loans, the implementation of the Five Equalisations, and the setting up of various management measures are intended to unify the people and suppress monopolization." Consequently, in Chang'an, as well as in Luoyang, Handan, Linzi, Wan, and Chengdu, the offices of the Five Equalisations Market Supervisors and the Money Treasury were established. The Market Supervisors regularly determined the upper, middle, and lower grades of prices for goods in the middle month of each season, each serving as the standard market price. When the people sold grain, cloth, silk floss, and other items that could not be sold, the Equalisation Officials verified the actual circumstances and purchased them at their cost price; if prices rose one coin above the standard, they sold to the people at the standard price; when prices fell below the standard, they allowed the people to buy and sell freely. Additionally, if the people were in need and wished to borrow, the Money Treasury provided loans; for every hundred coins, three coins of interest were charged per month. Further, following the Zhou Officials, they levied taxes on the people. For fields left uncultivated as "non-planting," a tax of three husbandry units was imposed; for dwellings within city walls not planted with trees or vegetables as "non-productive," a levy of three husbandry units in coin was imposed; for people who wandered idly without work, a levy of one bolt of cloth per husband was imposed; those unable to provide cloth performed labor as compensation, with clothing and food supplied by the county officials. For all those who obtained gold, silver, copper, tin, birds, beasts, fish, turtles, and the like from mountains, forests, lakes, and marshes, as well as livestock herders; women who raised silkworms, spun, wove, and sewed; artisans, physicians, shamans, diviners, invocators, and other specialists; and merchants and traders—each was required to declare their occupation to the local county official. After deducting costs, one-tenth of the profit was calculated, and one share thereof was taken as tribute; those who dared not declare, or declared falsely, had all their goods confiscated and were sentenced to one year of labor service for the county officials. Xihe Lu Kuang further submitted a memorial requesting a monopoly on the sale of alcoholic beverages, and Wang Mang consented. Furthermore, the people were prohibited from holding crossbows and armor; violators were to be exiled to the Western Sea.
At first, Wang Mang had promulgated four prohibitions to the Xiongnu. Later, the Protector of the Wuhuan told the Wuhuan people that they must no longer pay taxes in furs and cloth to the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu sent envoys to demand the taxes, arrested the Wuhuan chieftain, bound him, and hung him upside down. The chieftain’s brother, enraged, together killed the Xiongnu envoys. When the Chanyu heard of this, he dispatched the Left Virtuous King’s army to enter Wuhuan, attack them, kill many of their people, and drive off nearly a thousand women and children, settling them in the Left Territory. He told the Wuhuan: “Bring horses, livestock, furs, and cloth to ransom them!” The Wuhuan brought goods and livestock to redeem them, but the Xiongnu accepted them and detained [the captives] without returning them.
When the Five Might Generals, Wang Jun and six others, arrived among the Xiongnu, they lavishly presented gold, silver, and silks to the Chanyu, informing him of the circumstances under which Wang Mang had received the Mandate of Heaven to replace the Han dynasty, and then they replaced the Chanyu’s old seal. The old seal’s inscription was “Seal of the Xiongnu Chanyu”; Wang Mang changed it to “Seal of the New Xiongnu Chanyu.” After the generals arrived, they bestowed the seal and ribbon upon the Chanyu and ordered him to surrender the old seal and ribbon. The Chanyu twice knelt and received the edict. An interpreter stepped forward, intending to remove the old seal and ribbon; the Chanyu lifted his arm and handed them over. The Left Guxi Marquis Su, who was standing nearby, said to the Chanyu: “We have not yet seen the inscription on the new seal; we should perhaps not give it up yet.” The Chanyu stopped and refused to give it. He invited the envoys to sit in the felt tent, and the Chanyu wanted to step forward and offer toasts. The Five Might General said: “The old seal and ribbon ought to be surrendered promptly.” The Chanyu said: “Very well.” He again lifted his arm and handed them to the interpreter. Su again said: “We have not seen the seal inscription; do not give it up for now.” The Chanyu said: “How could the seal inscription change?” Thereupon he removed the old seal and ribbon and presented them to the generals, accepting and wearing the new ribbon without untying it to examine the seal. They drank and feasted until nightfall before concluding.
The Right Commander Chen Rao said to the various generals: “Just now the Guxi Marquis suspected the seal inscription and nearly caused the Chanyu to refuse to surrender it. If he had seen the inscription and noticed the change, he would certainly have demanded the old seal back, and this could not have been refused by mere words. To have obtained it and then lost it—there is no greater disgrace to our mission! It would be better to smash the old seal to sever the root of the disaster.” The generals hesitated and none responded. Chen Rao was a man of Yan, bold and fierce, so he took an axe and smashed the old seal. The next day, the Chanyu indeed sent the Right Guduhou Dang to inform the generals, saying: “The Han dynasty’s Chanyu seal read ‘Seal’ and not ‘Seal of Office,’ and it lacked the character ‘Han’; only the kings and those below had ‘Han’ and read ‘Seal of Office.’ Now [you] have removed ‘Seal’ and added ‘New,’ making it no different from that of a subject. I wish to obtain the old seal.” The generals showed him the broken seal and said: “The New Dynasty, responding to the Mandate of Heaven, has made [this new one]. The old seal has been destroyed by the generals themselves. The Chanyu ought to accept the Mandate of Heaven and honor the New Dynasty’s regulations!” Dang returned and reported; the Chanyu knew there was nothing to be done, and moreover he had received many bribes, so he sent his younger brother, the Right Virtuous King Yu, with horses and cattle to accompany the generals to court to offer thanks, and also submitted a memorial requesting the old seal.
When the generals returned to the place where the Left Liwu King Xian dwelt, they saw many Wuhuan people and asked Xian about it; Xian explained the situation in detail. The generals said: “Previously, the four prohibitions were issued, [stipulating] that one must not accept Wuhuan defectors. Return them immediately!” Xian said: “Allow me to secretly consult with the Chanyu; after receiving a reply, I will return them.” The Chanyu had Xian reply: “Should they be returned from within the border, or from beyond the border?” The generals dared not decide on their own and reported to the court. An edict replied: “Return them from beyond the border.” Wang Mang enfeoffed all the Five Might Generals as viscounts, and the commanders as barons; only Chen Rao, for his merit in smashing the old seal, was enfeoffed as Weide Viscount.
Earlier, the Chanyu had made defiant remarks to the Han when Xiahou Fan demanded territory. Later, because he could not collect taxes from the Wuhuan, he plundered the Wuhuan people, giving rise to conflict. Added to this was the change of the seal inscription, so he harbored resentment. He then sent the Right Great Juqu Puhuluzi and more than ten others, leading an army of ten thousand cavalry, on the pretext of escorting the Wuhuan, and stationed them at the Shuofang border pass. The Shuofang Commandery Governor reported this to the court. Wang Mang appointed Guangxin Duke Zhen Feng as the Right Earl, who was to go on a mission to the Western Regions. When the Later King of Jushi, Xuli Li, heard of this, he feared the burdens and expenses of providing supplies and plotted to flee to the Xiongnu. The Protector-General Dan Qin summoned Xuli Li and killed him. Xuli Li’s elder brother, the Assistant State Marquis Hulanzhi, led more than two thousand of Xuli Li’s followers and fled to surrender to the Xiongnu. The Chanyu accepted them and sent troops together with Hulanzhi to invade, attacking Jushi, killing the Later City Chief, and wounding the Protector-General’s Commandant; then Hulanzhi’s army returned to the Xiongnu. At that time, the Wu and Ji Colonel Diao Hu was ill, and the Clerk Chen Liang, Zhong Dai, Commandant Assistant Han Xuan, and Right Quhou Ren Shang plotted together, saying: “The various states of the Western Regions have mostly rebelled, and the Xiongnu are about to launch a major invasion. We are going to die anyway; we can kill the colonel and lead the troops to surrender to the Xiongnu.” Thereupon they killed Diao Hu and his sons and brothers, and forcibly took all the officers, soldiers, men, and women of the Wu and Ji Colonel’s command—more than two thousand people—into the Xiongnu. The Chanyu enfeoffed Chen Liang and Zhong Dai as Wuben Commandants.
In winter, the eleventh month, the State-Establishing General Sun Jian submitted a memorial, saying: “On the day Xinsi of the ninth month, Chen Liang and Zhong Dai styled themselves ‘Generals of the Abolished Han’ and fled into the Xiongnu. Also, on the day Guiyou of this month, someone unknown stopped my carriage and called himself ‘Liu Ziyu of the Han, the son of Emperor Cheng by a concubine. The Liu clan ought to be restored; quickly vacate the palace!’ I arrested this man, who turned out to be a man of Chang’an named Wu Zhong. These persons all violate the Mandate of Heaven and are guilty of great treason. The ancestral temples of the Han should not be located in the city of Chang’an, and all members of the Liu clan ought to be abolished along with the Han dynasty. Your Majesty is extremely benevolent and has long hesitated to decide this matter. Previously, the former Anzhong Marquis Liu Chong and others again gathered to rebel. Now these mad and cunning bandits once more rely on the fallen Han, to the point that they commit crimes punishable by the extermination of their entire clans without cease. This is because your sage grace has failed to cut off the evil at its root early enough. I request that all Han ancestral temples in the capital be abolished; all Liu clan members serving as officials be dismissed and allowed to await appointment at home.” Wang Mang said: “Approved. The Jiaxin Duke, the National Preceptor, relying on the prophetic writings, serve as my Four Assistants. The Mingde Marquis Liu Gong, the Shuailli Marquis Liu Jia, and thirty-two others all know the Mandate of Heaven; some have presented celestial omens, some have offered fine words, some have seized and denounced rebels—their merits are great. Those Liu clan members who share the same ancestor as these thirty-two persons shall not be dismissed, and their surname shall be changed to Wang.” Only the National Preceptor, because his daughter was married to Wang Mang’s son, was not given the Wang surname.
Since the abolition of the Liu clan, the Ding’an Duke’s Grand Dowager had often claimed illness and did not attend court. She was then not yet twenty years old. Wang Mang both respected and feared her, and pitied and grieved for her; he wanted to marry her off, so he changed her title to “Huanghuang Principal Wife,” wishing to sever her ties with the Han. He ordered Sun Jian’s eldest son to dress in fine clothes and take physicians to inquire after her illness. The Grand Dowager was enraged and beat her attendants; because of this she fell ill and refused to rise from bed. Wang Mang then no longer pressed the matter.
In the twelfth month, there was thunder.
Wang Mang, relying on the wealth of the state treasury, wished to establish his authority over the Xiongnu. He therefore changed the title of the Xiongnu Chanyu to “Jiangnu Fuyu” and issued an edict dispatching the State-Establishing General Sun Jian and others to lead twelve generals, who would advance by separate routes simultaneously: the Five Might General Miao Xin and the Tiger Ben General Wang Kuang would advance from Wuyuan; the Yan Nan General Chen Qin and the Zhen Di General Wang Xun would advance from Yunzhong; the Zhen Wu General Wang Jia and the Ping Di General Wang Meng would advance from Dai Commandery; the Xiang Wei General Li Shen and the Zhen Yuan General Li Weng would advance from Xihe; the Zhu Mo General Yang Jun and the Tao Hui General Yan You would advance from Yuyang; the Fen Wu General Wang Jun and the Ding Hu General Wang Yan would advance from Zhangye; together with deputy generals and assistant commanders below, one hundred and eighty men in total. They were to recruit all the empire’s convicts, able-bodied men, and armed soldiers, three hundred thousand men, and transport supplies of fur coats, weapons, and grain from the coast, the Yangzi and Huai Rivers, all the way to the northern frontier. Envoys riding relay carriages would hasten and supervise, with all subject to military law. The troops that arrived first were to be stationed in the border commanderies, waiting until all were assembled before launching a simultaneous attack; they were to pursue the Xiongnu to the farthest extent and drive them to the Dingling. The Xiongnu’s territory and people were to be divided into fifteen parts, and fifteen descendants of Huhanye were all to be established as Chanyu.
Wang Mang, because the coinage still could not circulate, issued another edict saying: “If the precious goods are all too heavy, small transactions cannot be conducted; if they are all too light, transport and carrying become troublesome and wasteful; if there are graded levels of light, heavy, large, and small, they will be convenient to use, and the common people will gladly accept them.” Thereupon he re-established the categories of gold, silver, tortoise shell, cowrie, coin, and cloth, calling them precious goods. There were six types of coin goods, one type of gold goods, two types of silver goods, four types of tortoise shell goods, five types of cowrie goods, and ten types of cloth goods, altogether five categories of precious goods with six names and twenty-eight varieties. The coins and cloth were all cast from copper, with lead and tin mixed in. The common people were thrown into utter confusion, and these currencies could not circulate. Wang Mang, knowing the people were suffering, then allowed only the small coin worth one and the large coin worth fifty to circulate, the two types used together; the tortoise shell, cowrie, cloth, and other categories were temporarily set aside. The private minting of coins could not be stopped, so he tightened the laws: if one household minted coins, the five neighboring households were implicated and confiscated as government slaves. Officials and common people coming and going had to carry coins and also possess a tally as identification; those who did not carry them were denied lodging at postal stations and inns along the way, and were strictly inspected at passes and ferries. High ministers and nobles all carried coins into the palace gates, intending thereby to show their importance and promote the coinage. At that time, the common people were accustomed to and at ease using the Han dynasty’s five-shu coin; because Wang Mang’s two types of coins—large and small—were used together and hard to distinguish, and had been changed many times, the people did not trust them, and all secretly used the five-shu coin for trade. Rumors spread that the large coin was about to be abolished, and no one was willing to carry it. Wang Mang was troubled by this, and issued another edict saying: “Whoever carries the five-shu coin or says that the large coin should be abolished shall be punished under the same law as those who opposed the well-field system, and exiled to the four border regions!” Thus, those who were convicted for selling land, houses, slaves, or minting coins—from nobles, ministers, and high officials down to commoners—were countless in number. As a result, farmers and merchants lost their livelihoods, grain and currency were both abandoned, and the people wept by the roadside.
When Wang Mang was plotting to usurp the throne, officials and common people vied to present portentous documents, and all were enfeoffed as marquises. Those who had not presented such documents joked with one another, saying: “Have you not received the celestial removal edict?” The Director of Mandates, Chen Chong, reported to Wang Mang, saying: “This opens the way for treacherous ministers to wield authority and disrupt the heavenly mandate; it should be cut off at its root.” Wang Mang had also grown weary of this, so he sent the Minister of the Interior, Zhao Bing, to investigate and handle the matter. Anyone whose portentous documents were not issued by the Five Majestic Generals was imprisoned.
Initially, Zhen Feng, Liu Xiu, and Wang Shun were Wang Mang’s confidants, advocating for him at court and praising his virtue and merit. The titles of Anhan Gong and Zaiheng, as well as the enfeoffments of Wang Mang’s mother, his two sons, and his brother’s son, were all planned by Zhen Feng and the others. And Zhen Feng, Wang Shun, and Liu Xiu also received rewards; they had all become wealthy and noble, and no longer wished for Wang Mang to act as regent. The seeds of the regency came from the Marquis of Quanling, Liu Qing; the former Guang of Guanghui, Xie Xiao; and the Prefect of Chang’an, Tian Zhongshu. When Wang Mang’s wings had grown full and he intended to assume the regency, Zhen Feng and the others followed his intentions. Wang Mang then again enfeoffed and rewarded the sons and grandsons of Wang Shun, Liu Xiu, and Zhen Feng in return. The ranks of Zhen Feng and the others were already high, and their desires were satisfied; moreover, they truly feared the Han imperial clan and the heroes of the realm. But those who were more distant and sought advancement together fabricated portentous documents, and Wang Mang thereby ascended to the position of true emperor; Wang Shun and Liu Xiu were merely afraid. Zhen Feng had always been strong-willed, and Wang Mang, sensing his displeasure, therefore pretended to follow the words of the portentous documents and transferred Zhen Feng to the post of General Who Initiates Change, placing him in the same rank as the cake-seller Wang Sheng. Zhen Feng and his son remained silent. At that time, Zhen Feng’s son Zhen Xun served as Palace Attendant, Grand Governor of Jingzhao, and Marquis of Maode. He then fabricated another portentous document, saying: “The Xin dynasty should, like the Duke of Zhou’s division of governance at Shan, establish two regional chiefs, making Zhen Feng the Right Chief and Grand Tutor Ping Yan the Left Chief, following the precedent of the Duke of Zhou and the Duke of Shao.” Wang Mang immediately complied and appointed Zhen Feng as the Right Chief. As Zhen Feng was about to travel west to report on his duties, but before departing, Zhen Xun fabricated yet another portentous document, claiming that the former Han dynasty’s Empress Ping, the Yellow Sovereign’s Mistress, was Zhen Xun’s wife. Wang Mang, who had founded his state through deceit, harbored suspicions that his ministers resented and slandered him, and wished to display his authority to intimidate his subordinates. He thus became enraged and said: “The Yellow Sovereign’s Mistress is the mother of the realm—what words are these!” He arrested Zhen Xun. Zhen Xun fled, and Zhen Feng committed suicide. Zhen Xun followed a magician into Mount Hua, and was captured after more than a year. His confession implicated the son of State Preceptor Liu Xiu, the Palace Attendant and Marquis of Longwei, Liu Fen; Liu Fen’s younger brother, the Right Assistant and Chief of the Changshui Garrison, the Marquis of Falu, Liu Yong; the younger brother of Grand Minister of Works Wang Yi, the General of the Left Pass and Marquis of Zhangwei, Wang Qi; and Liu Xiu’s disciple, the Palace Attendant and Chief of the Cavalry, Ding Long, among others. This involved dukes, ministers, factions, relatives, and marquises and below; several hundred people were executed. Thereupon, Liu Fen was exiled to Youzhou, Zhen Xun was banished to Sanwei, and Ding Long was executed at Yushan; their bodies were transported by relay carts.
That year, Wang Mang began to promote matters of immortals. Following the advice of the magician Su Le, he constructed the Eight Winds Tower, spending ten thousand catties of gold on its construction. He also planted the Five Types of Grain in the palace, first steeping the seeds in precious jade; one hu of grain cost one catty of gold.
In the third year of Wang Mang’s Shijianguo reign (Xinwei, 11 CE), he sent General of the Fields and Harvests Zhao Bing to conscript garrison troops to open up state farms in Wuyuan and Beijia, in order to supply military grain.
Wang Mang sent Central General Lang Bao and Deputy Colonel Dai Ji, leading ten thousand cavalry, carrying a large quantity of precious goods to the border at Yunzhong, to lure the sons of Chanyu Huhanye, intending to enfeoff them in order as fifteen chanyus. Lang Bao and Dai Ji sent interpreters beyond the passes to entice the Right Liyu King Xian, and Xian’s sons Deng and Zhu. When the three men arrived, they were coerced into being appointed: Xian as the Filial Chanyu, Zhu as the Obedient Chanyu; both were given generous gifts. Zhu and Deng were then transported to Chang’an. Wang Mang enfeoffed Lang Bao as the Duke of Xuanwei and appointed him General of the Tiger’s Fangs; he enfeoffed Dai Ji as the Duke of Yangwei and appointed him General of the Tiger’s Chargers. When the Chanyu heard of this, he became enraged and said: “The former chanyu received the favor of Emperor Xuan of Han and could not turn his back on it. The Son of Heaven today is not the descendant of Emperor Xuan—on what grounds does he take the throne?” Thereupon, he sent the Left Guduhou, the Right Yizhizi King Huluzi, and the Left Virtuous King Yue, leading troops to enter the Yishou Border Post of Yunzhong, where they killed many officials and common people. After this, the Chanyu instructed the Left and Right Commandants and the various border kings to enter the border passes to raid and plunder, with large bands of over ten thousand men, medium bands of several thousand, and small bands of several hundred. They killed the Grand Administrators and Commandants of Yanmen and Shuofang, and seized officials, common people, livestock, and property beyond counting. The border regions were thereby emptied and exhausted.
At this time, the various generals were on the border, and because the main force had not yet assembled, they did not dare to attack the Xiongnu. The General Who Suppresses the Hu, Yan You, admonished, saying: "I have heard that the Xiongnu have been a calamity for a long time, and I have not heard that in high antiquity there was necessarily a campaign to subjugate them. In later ages, the three dynasties of Zhou, Qin, and Han campaigned against them, but none achieved the best strategy. The Zhou achieved the middle strategy, the Han achieved the inferior strategy, and the Qin had no strategy at all. In the time of King Xuan of Zhou, the Xianyun invaded, reaching Jingyang; King Xuan of Zhou ordered a general to campaign against them, driving them beyond the borders and then returning. They regarded the incursions of the Rong and Di as like mosquitoes or gadflies—just drive them away, that was all. Thus the world praised their wisdom—this is the middle strategy. Emperor Wu of Han selected generals and trained troops, carried light dry provisions, and penetrated deep into distant territories on expeditions. Although there were victories in battle, the Xiongnu always retaliated. The war continued for over thirty years; the Central Plains were exhausted and depleted, and the Xiongnu were also wounded. Yet the world praised their martial achievements—this is the inferior strategy. The First Emperor of Qin could not endure a small disgrace and despised the people's strength. He built a solid Great Wall, stretching ten thousand li, and transported supplies, starting from the sea coast. Although the borders were secure, the interior of the Central Plains was emptied, leading to the loss of the state—this is having no strategy at all. Now the world encounters the calamity of Yangjiu, with successive years of famine, and the northwestern border is especially severe. If we mobilize three hundred thousand troops and prepare three hundred days of provisions, taking grain from the east from Hai and Dai commanderies, and from the south from Jiang and Huai, only then can it be completed. Calculating the distance, even in one year they cannot be assembled. The troops arriving first gather in the wilderness; as time passes, their equipment decays, and it cannot be used in the situation—this is the first difficulty. The border is already empty and cannot supply military provisions; transferring them from interior commanderies and kingdoms cannot arrive in time—this is the second difficulty. Calculating that one man's provisions for three hundred days requires eighteen hu, and without oxen it cannot be transported; the oxen themselves must also eat fodder, adding another twenty hu, making the burden too heavy. The Hu lands are sandy, mostly lacking water and grass. Based on past events, if the army sets out for less than a hundred days, the oxen will surely all die. The remaining grain will still be abundant but cannot be carried by men—this is the third difficulty. The Hu lands are very cold in autumn and winter, and in spring and summer there is much wind. One must carry many pots, firewood, and charcoal, which are too heavy to bear; eating dry provisions and drinking water, passing through the four seasons, the army will suffer from the worry of disease and plague. Thus, in former times, campaigns against the Hu did not exceed a hundred days. It is not that they did not wish to prolong them, but their strength could not achieve it—this is the fourth difficulty. If the baggage train follows the troops, then the light, elite soldiers will be few, and they cannot march swiftly. The enemy slowly flees, and in the situation, they cannot be pursued. If by chance they encounter the enemy, they are dragged down by the baggage; if they encounter difficult terrain, the column stretches end to end, and the enemy intercepts from front and rear—the danger is incalculable—this is the fifth difficulty. Greatly expending the people's strength, the achievement may not necessarily be established; I privately worry about this. Now that the troops have already been dispatched, we should let the first to arrive set out, and let me, Yan You, and others penetrate deeply, striking like thunder, thereby attacking the Hu." Wang Mang did not listen to Yan You's words, but continued to transport troops and provisions, and the whole realm was in turmoil.
Wang Xian, having already received the title of "Filial Chanyu" from Wang Mang, galloped out of the frontier and returned to his court, relating in detail the circumstances of his coercion to the Chanyu. The Chanyu changed his title to "Yusuzhizhi Marquis," which was a low-ranking office among the Xiongnu. Later, Wang Zhu died of illness, and Wang Mang appointed Wang Deng to replace Wang Zhu as the Obedient Chanyu.
The garrison troops and officials on the border everywhere acted licentiously, while the people of the interior commanderies suffered from the levies. The people abandoned their cities and towns, beginning to flee and become bandits; Bingzhou and Pingzhou were especially severe. Wang Mang ordered that the titles of the Seven Dukes and Six Ministers all concurrently serve as generals, and dispatched General Who Awe Inspires the Military, Lu Bing, and others to garrison the famous capitals. He sent fifty-five each of Palace Attendants and Embroidered-Coat Law Enforcement Officers to garrison the major border commanderies respectively, to supervise and investigate the great villains and cunning men who arbitrarily manipulated military authority. These people, while outside, took advantage of the situation to commit crimes, disturbing the commanderies and kingdoms, openly engaging in bribery, and plundering the people. Wang Mang issued an edict sternly rebuking them, saying: "From now on, if anyone dares to commit such crimes again, arrest and imprison them, and report their names upward!" Yet they still acted licentiously as before. The northern borderlands, from the time of Emperor Xuan of Han, had for generations not seen the alarm of war. The population was flourishing, with oxen and horses covering the fields. By the time Wang Mang disturbed the Xiongnu and incurred enmity with them, the border people died or were captured. Within a few years, the northern border was empty, and the wilderness was covered with exposed white bones.
Grand Tutor Wang Shun, ever since Wang Mang usurped the throne, had gradually suffered from a worsening heart palpitation illness, and died.
Wang Mang established for the Heir Apparent a set of teachers and friends, each in groups of four, with salaries at the rank of Grandee. He appointed former Grand Minister of the Masses Ma Gong and others as Teacher of Doubts, Assistant Teacher, Assistant Supporter, and Protector, constituting the Four Teachers. He also appointed former Prefect of the Masters of Writing Tang Lin and others as Attached Aides, Runners, Escorts, and Defenders, constituting the Four Friends. He further established one each for Teacher-Friend, Palace Attendant, Remonstrance Consultant, and Libationer for the Six Classics, totaling nine Libationers, all with salaries at the rank of Senior Minister. He dispatched envoys bearing edicts, seals and ribbons, comfortable carriages, and four-horse teams to welcome Gong Sheng, appointing him on the spot as Libationer of Teacher-Friend. The envoy, together with the commandery governor, county chief and elders, subordinate officials, righteous men, and various students, numbering over a thousand, entered Gong Sheng's village to convey the edict. The envoy wanted Gong Sheng to rise and welcome him, but he stood outside the gate for a long time. Gong Sheng claimed to be seriously ill, and inside his house, he set up a bed by the west of the door under the south window, with his head facing east, wearing his court robes and trailing his sash. The envoy delivered the edict, holding the seal and ribbon, and placed the comfortable carriage and four-horse team in order. Approaching Gong Sheng, he said: "The sacred court has not forgotten you. The institutions have not yet been settled, and we await you to come and govern. It greatly wishes to hear the policies you intend to implement, so as to stabilize the world." Gong Sheng replied: "I have always been foolish, and now, aged and ill, my life hangs by a thread. If I follow you on the road, I will surely die on the way, of no benefit to the court!" The envoy repeatedly urged him, even to the point of trying to put the seal and ribbon directly on Gong Sheng's body. Gong Sheng always declined and refused to accept. The envoy reported: "Now it is the height of summer heat; Gong Sheng is gravely ill and his energy is weak. We can wait until autumn cools to set out." The emperor issued an edict agreeing. The envoy, every five days, together with the commandery governor, inquired after Gong Sheng's daily life, and said to Gong Sheng's two sons and his disciple Gao Hui and others: "The court treats you with an open mind, intending to enfeoff you with territory. Although you are ill, you should still move to the official hostel, showing signs of an intention to go. You must surely leave a great legacy for your sons and grandsons." Gao Hui and others relayed the envoy's words to Gong Sheng. Gong Sheng knew that his own views would not be adopted, and said to Gao Hui and others: "I have received the deep kindness of the Han dynasty, and have been unable to repay it. Now that I am old, morning and evening I am about to enter the earth. How can I serve a single person to serve two emperors, and then go to the underworld to see my former lord?" Gong Sheng then gave instructions for matters of his coffin and burial: "Clothes only need to cover the body; the coffin only needs to cover the clothes. Do not follow customs by altering my grave, planting cypress trees, or building a shrine!" Having spoken, he no longer opened his mouth to speak or ate food, and died fourteen days later. At death, he was seventy-nine years old.
At this time, among the pure and lofty men of renown, there were also Ji Xun of Langya, Xue Fang of Qi, Xun Fu Yue and Xun Xiang of Taiyuan, and Tang Lin and Tang Zun of Pei, all renowned for their understanding of the classics and upright conduct. Ji Xun and the two Tangs all served as officials under Wang Mang's dynasty, were enfeoffed as marquises, became honored and noble, and successively held positions among the dukes and ministers. Tang Lin repeatedly submitted memorials remonstrating and correcting, possessing loyal and upright integrity. Tang Zun wore tattered clothes and walked in empty sandals, seeking a false reputation. Xun Xiang was one of the Four Friends of Wang Mang's Heir Apparent, and died of illness. The Heir Apparent sent an envoy to present burial garments, but Xun Xiang's son clung to the coffin and refused to accept, saying: "My deceased father left the instruction: 'Do not accept gifts from teachers or friends.' Now, because of the Heir Apparent's relationship, I rely on being considered a friend of an official, and therefore do not accept." Everyone in the capital praised him. Wang Mang used a comfortable carriage to welcome Xue Fang, but Xue Fang declined through the envoy, saying: "When Yao and Shun were above, below there were Chao Fu and Xu You. Now the enlightened lord is flourishing in the virtues of Tang and Yu, and this petty minister wishes to hold fast to the integrity of Jishan." The envoy reported this to Wang Mang. Wang Mang was pleased with his words and did not force him to come.
Initially, Guo Qin of Yumi served as the Grand Administrator of Nan Commandery, and Jiang Xu of Duling served as the Inspector of Yan Province; both were also renowned for their incorruptibility and uprightness. When Wang Mang assumed regency, Guo Qin and Jiang Xu both resigned due to illness, returned to their hometowns, shut their doors, and died at home. During the reigns of Emperor Ai and Emperor Ping, Chen Xian of Pei served as a Minister by virtue of his knowledge of laws and decrees. When Wang Mang assisted in governance, he frequently altered the Han system, and Chen Xian opposed him in his heart. After He Wu and Bao Xuan died, Chen Xian sighed and said, "The Book of Changes says, 'Seeing the omens, act without waiting for a full day.' I can leave now." He then requested retirement and resigned. When Wang Mang usurped the throne, he summoned Chen Xian to serve as the Grand Minister of Banditry; Chen Xian claimed illness and refused the summons. At that time, his three sons, Chen Can, Chen Qin, and Chen Feng, were all in office. Chen Xian ordered them all to resign and return to their hometowns, shut their doors, and still used the Han ancestral and Laba sacrifices. When someone asked why, Chen Xian said, "How could my ancestors know of the Wang clan's Laba sacrifice?" He gathered all the laws, decrees, and documents his family had stored and hid them in the walls. There were also Li Rong of Qi, Qin Qing of Beihai, Su Zhang, and Cao Jing of Shanyang, all of whom were Confucian scholars, resigned from office, and did not serve in Wang Mang's court.
Ban Gu commented: During the Spring and Autumn period, the great officers of the various states and the generals, ministers, and renowned officials from the rise of the Han dynasty—many were greedy for emoluments, indulged in favor, and lost their hereditary enterprises. Thus, pure and principled scholars were valued for this reason; but generally, most could only cultivate themselves and could not govern others. The abilities of Wang Ji and Gong Yu surpassed those of Gong Sheng and Bao Xuan. Holding fast to the right path unyieldingly unto death—Gong Sheng indeed achieved this. Upright yet not stubborn—Xue Fang came close to this. Guo Qin and Jiang Xu, skilled in retreating without being tainted, surpassed Ji Qun, Tang Lin, and Tang Zun.
That year, locust plagues occurred in the commanderies along the Yellow River.
The Yellow River breached its banks in Wei Commandery, flooding eastward to several commanderies in Qinghe. Previously, Wang Mang feared the Yellow River breach would harm the ancestral tombs of Yuancheng; when the river breached and flowed eastward, Yuancheng had no worries about flooding, so no dikes were built to block it.
In the fourth year of Wang Mang's Zhongshi Guojian reign (Ren Shen, 12 AD),
Spring, the second month, a general amnesty was granted.
Yan Nan General Chen Qin and Zhen Di General Wang Xun submitted a memorial saying: "Captured prisoners were interrogated, and they said that the border incursions were all the work of Wang Jiao, the son of Filial Chanyu Wang Xian." Wang Mang then assembled the various barbarians and executed Wang Deng, Wang Xian's son, in the marketplace of Chang'an.
Grand Marshal Zhen Han died.
Wang Mang went to the Bright Hall and issued an edict: "Let Luoyang be the Eastern Capital, and Chang'an the Western Capital. The capitals are connected, each with its own fiefs and territories. The provinces are set at nine according to the 'Tribute of Yu'; the ranks are set at five according to the Zhou system. The number of feudal lords is 1,800, and the number of attached cities is the same, to await those with merit. The fief of a Duke is 'one tong,' with 10,000 households; the rest are reduced according to this standard. Now, those already enfeoffed include 796 from Dukes down to Marquises, and 1,511 attached cities." Because the maps and registers were not yet finalized, no states or cities were granted, and they were temporarily allowed to receive salaries within the capital, several thousand cash per month. All the feudal lords were impoverished, and some even worked as hired laborers.
Wang Mang was inherently impatient and could not govern through non-action. Whenever he initiated something, he always sought to imitate antiquity, disregarding timeliness, and his systems were never finalized. Officials took advantage of this to commit fraud, and the people of the world were distressed and clamorous, with many violating the laws. Wang Mang, knowing the people were distressed and resentful, issued an edict saying: "All those who possess royal fields may sell them, not bound by the prohibitions. Those who violate the ban on private trading of commoners are temporarily exempted from punishment." But other government affairs were chaotic, punishments were harsh, and tax levies were heavy, just as before.
Initially, the Five Might Generals and Commandants were sent to the Southwestern Yi, demoting the King of Juding to a Marquis. The King of Juding, Han, was resentful and refused to submit. Wang Mang instructed Zangke Grand Administrator Zhou Xin to devise a plan to kill Han. Han's younger brother, Cheng, raised troops and killed Zhou Xin. The province and commandery sent troops to attack but could not pacify them. Wang Mang then mobilized the Goguryeo army to attack the Xiongnu; the Goguryeo people were unwilling to go, and the commandery governor forced them, causing them all to flee beyond the frontier, thus breaking the law and becoming bandits. Liaoxi Grand Administrator Tian Tan pursued them and was killed by them. The province and commandery blamed Goguryeo Marquis Zou, and Yan You submitted a memorial saying: "The Mo people broke the law, not starting with Zou; even if they have treacherous intentions, the province and commandery should temporarily pacify them. Now suddenly imposing great crimes on them, I fear they will rebel, and tribes like Fuyu will surely respond. The Xiongnu have not yet been subdued, and if Fuyu and Hui Mo rise in rebellion, this is a great calamity." Wang Mang did not pacify them, and the Hui Mo then rebelled; he ordered Yan You to attack them. Yan You tricked Goguryeo Marquis Zou into coming and executed him, sending his head to Chang'an. Wang Mang was very pleased and issued an order to rename Goguryeo as Xia Goguryeo. Consequently, the Mo people increasingly invaded the borders, and the eastern, northern, and southwestern Yi all fell into chaos. Wang Mang's ambition was at its height, believing the four barbarians were insufficient to conquer, and he focused solely on examining ancient affairs. He issued another edict saying: "Set for this year, in the second month, the eastern inspection tour, prepare the rituals and arrangements." Shortly thereafter, due to the illness of Wenmu Grand Empress Dowager, it was temporarily halted pending later.
Initially, when Wang Mang served as Duke of Anhan, he wanted to flatter the Grand Empress Dowager, and citing the merit of beheading the Chanyu Zhizhi, he requested to honor the temple of Emperor Yuan with the title of Gaozong. After the Grand Empress Dowager died, she was to be enshrined with him according to ritual. When Wang Mang changed the Grand Empress Dowager's title to Xin Shi Wen Mu, severing her connection with the Han, and not allowing her to be enshrined with Emperor Yuan, he demolished the Temple of Filial Emperor Yuan and built a separate temple for Wen Mu Grand Empress Dowager. He only retained the old hall of the Temple of Filial Emperor Yuan as Wen Mu's sacrificial dining hall. After its completion, it was named Changshou Palace, and because the Grand Empress Dowager was still alive, it was not called a temple. Wang Mang held a banquet at Changshou Palace and invited the Grand Empress Dowager. When the Grand Empress Dowager arrived and saw the Temple of Filial Emperor Yuan demolished beyond recognition, she was shocked and wept, saying: "This is the ancestral temple of the Han family, all with spirits; why did you destroy it! If ghosts and spirits are without knowledge, why build a temple? If ghosts and spirits have knowledge, I am the consort of a man; how could I defile the emperor's hall to set out offerings?" She privately said to her attendants: "This man is too disrespectful to the spirits; can he be blessed for long?" The drinking ended unhappily. Since Wang Mang usurped the throne, knowing the Grand Empress Dowager resented him, he did everything to please her, sparing no effort, but the Grand Empress Dowager was even more displeased. Wang Mang changed the Han black sable to yellow sable; he also changed the Han calendar and the Fu and La days. The Grand Empress Dowager ordered her own officials to still wear black sable; on the Han new year's day and La day, she alone with her attendants drank and feasted.
In the fifth year of Wang Mang's Zhongshi Guojian reign (Gui You, 13 AD),
Spring, the second month, Wen Mu Grand Empress Dowager died, aged eighty-four. She was buried at Weiling, to be interred with Emperor Yuan, but a ditch was dug between them. The Xin dynasty generation after generation offered sacrifices in her temple; Emperor Yuan was enshrined, his spirit tablet placed beneath the bed. Wang Mang observed mourning for her for three years.
The Greater and Lesser Kunmi of Wusun sent envoys to present tribute. Wang Mang believed that the people of Wusun mostly attached themselves to the Lesser Kunmi, and seeing the Xiongnu harassing the borders everywhere, wanted to win over the hearts of the Wusun people. He thus sent an envoy to guide the Lesser Kunmi's envoy to sit above the Greater Kunmi's envoy. The Teacher-Friend Libationer Man Chang impeached the envoy, saying: "The barbarians submit because China has ritual and righteousness. The Greater Kunmi is the ruler; now placing the envoy of a subject above that of the ruler is not the way to pacify the barbarians. Failing in one's mission, great disrespect!" Wang Mang was enraged and dismissed Man Chang from office.
The Western Regions, because Wang Mang had long lost their trust and favor, Yanqi first rebelled and killed the Protector Dan Qin. The Western Regions then disintegrated.
In the eleventh month, a comet appeared; after more than twenty days, it disappeared.
That year, because there were many people violating the prohibition on carrying copper and charcoal, the law was abolished.
The Xiongnu Wuzhuliu Chanyu died. The powerful minister, the Right Gudu Marquess Xubu Dang, was the husband of Wang Zhaojun’s daughter, Yimo Juzi Yun. Yun often desired peace and marriage alliances with the Central Plains and had always been on good terms with Yuli Zhizhi Marquess Xian. Seeing that Xian had been repeatedly appointed by Wang Mang, she established Xian as the Wulei Ruodi Chanyu. After Wulei Chanyu Xian ascended the throne, he appointed his younger brother Yu as the Left Guli King. Wuzhuliu Chanyu’s son, Sutu Hu, originally the Left Worthy King, was later renamed Hu Yu, with the intention of passing the state to him. Xian resented Wuzhuliu Chanyu for demoting his own title, so he demoted Hu Yu to the Left Tuqi King.
Wang Mang’s Tianfeng First Year (Jiaxu, 14 CE)
Spring, first month. A general amnesty was granted throughout the empire.
Wang Mang issued an edict: “This year, in the middle months of each season, the imperial inspection tour will be fully conducted. The Grand Provisioner shall carry dried grain and dried meat; the Palace Steward shall set up traveling seats and bedding. Supplies shall not be provided at places passed through. After completing the northern inspection tour, the capital shall be established at Luoyang, the center of the empire.” The lords jointly submitted a memorial: “The Emperor is extremely filial. Having just suffered the mourning for Wenmu, his complexion has not yet recovered, and his food and drink have diminished. Now, seasonal inspections over ten thousand li, at an advanced age, cannot be borne with just dried grain and dried meat. We request that the inspections be postponed until the mourning period ends, to ease the imperial body.” Wang Mang agreed, scheduling the inspection for Tianfeng Year Seven; the following year, he would proceed to the center of the empire, sending Grand Tutor Ping Yan and Grand Minister of Works Wang Yi to Luoyang to lay the foundations of palaces and halls, and to plan the construction of ancestral temples, altars of soil and grain, and sacred sites.
Third month, Ren Shen, the last day. A solar eclipse occurred. A general amnesty was granted throughout the empire. Due to the calamity and anomaly, Grand Marshal Lu Bing was dismissed by edict and ordered to take his position at the Hou clan court. Grand Tutor Ping Yan no longer concurrently held the office of Minister of Works. Limiao Nan Xin was appointed Grand Marshal. After Wang Mang formally ascended the throne, he was particularly wary of his ministers, suppressing and stripping them of power. If any courtier criticized his faults, he would promote them. Kong Ren, Zhao Bo, Fei Xing, and others, because they dared to attack high ministers, gained trust and were selected for prestigious offices. State General Ai Zhang was quite corrupt; Wang Mang selected and appointed a He Shu for him, warning: “You are to protect not only the State General’s household, but also his relatives in the Western Regions.” All the lords despised him, and Ai Zhang especially so.
Summer, fourth month. Frost fell, killing plants and trees, especially severe in coastal areas. Sixth month. Yellow fog filled the four directions. Autumn, seventh month. A great wind uprooted trees and blew off tiles from the northern watchtower and the straight city gate. Hail fell, killing cattle and sheep.
Wang Mang, based on the texts of the Rites of Zhou and the Royal Regulations, established the positions of Commander-in-Chief, Lianshuai, and Grand Administrator, with duties like those of a Grand Administrator. He also set up nine Regional Governors and twenty-five Regional Supervisors. He divided the area around Chang’an into six townships, each with a Marshal. He divided the Three Adjuncts into six Commandery Adjuncts; Hedong, Henei, Hongnong, Henan, Yingchuan, and Nanyang became six Commandery Corps. He renamed the Grand Administrator of Henan as Baoxin Xin Qing. He increased the subordinate counties of Henan to thirty, and established six Suburban Prefecture Chiefs, each overseeing five counties. Other official titles were all changed. Large commanderies were even divided into five, totaling one hundred and twenty-five commanderies. Within the Nine Provinces, there were two thousand two hundred and three counties. He also imitated the ancient Six Domains, establishing Weicheng, Weining, Weihan, Weiping, Weiyuan, and Weifan, each named according to its direction, collectively called the Ten Thousand States. Thereafter, changes occurred every year; a commandery might be renamed five times, only to revert to its original name. Officials and commoners could not keep records; whenever an edict was issued, the original name was noted.
The Xiongnu Right Gudu Marquess Xubu Dang and Yimo Juzi Yun urged the Chanyu to seek peace and marriage, sending envoys to the Xiongnu frontier at Huhu, in the west of Xihe Commandery, at the Zhisai Pass. They told the border officials: “We wish to see the Peace and Marriage Marquis.” The Peace and Marriage Marquis was Wang Zhaojun’s elder brother’s son, Wang Xi. The Central Commandery Commandant reported this. Wang Mang sent Wang Xi and Wang Xi’s younger brother, the Cavalry Commandant and Zhande Marquis Wang Sa, as envoys to the Xiongnu, to congratulate the Chanyu on his new accession, and to bestow gold, clothing, and silk fabrics. They falsely claimed that the hostage son, Deng, was still alive, and used this as a pretext to offer rewards for the capture of Chen Liang, Zhong Dai, and others. The Chanyu arrested all twenty-seven men, including Chen Liang, placed them in cangues and cages, and handed them over to the envoys. He sent Chefuxi Princess Fu and forty others to escort Wang Xi and Wang Sa. Wang Mang established the “Burning Alive” punishment and burned Chen Liang and the others to death.
A great famine occurred in the border regions, with instances of cannibalism. Remonstrance Grandee Ru Pu returned from inspecting the border troops and said: “The soldiers have been stationed for a long time, enduring cold and hardship, and the border commanderies cannot supply them. Now that the Chanyu has recently made peace, we should take this opportunity to withdraw the troops.” Colonel Han Wei submitted a proposal: “With the might of the Xin dynasty, swallowing up the Hu barbarians is no different from swallowing fleas and lice in one’s mouth. I am willing to lead five thousand brave soldiers, without carrying a single peck of grain. When hungry, we will eat the Hu barbarians’ flesh; when thirsty, we will drink their blood. We can march unopposed across the empire!” Wang Mang considered his words heroic and appointed Han Wei as a general. However, he adopted Ru Pu’s suggestion, recalled all the generals stationed at the borders, dismissed Chen Qin and seventeen others from their posts, and also disbanded the various garrisons at the Four Passes and the Commandery Defenses. The Chanyu coveted Wang Mang’s bribes, so outwardly he did not lose the old Han customs, but inwardly he still profited from plunder. Moreover, after the envoys returned, learning that his son Deng was dead, he harbored resentment and continuously raided from the left territories. When envoys questioned the Chanyu, he always said: “The Wuhuan and Xiongnu wicked people together invade the border passes, just as the Central Plains has bandits! I have just ascended the throne and taken charge of state affairs; my authority and trust are still shallow. I do my utmost to forbid it, daring not to have two minds!” Wang Mang again dispatched troops to garrison the area.
The Yi barbarians of Yizhou, troubled and distressed, all rebelled and killed the Grand Administrator of Yizhou, Cheng Long. Wang Mang sent General of Pacifying the Man, Feng Mao, to conscript officers and men from Ba, Shu, and Jianwei, and to extort taxes from the people to fund the campaign against them.
Wang Mang again promulgated the currencies of gold, silver, tortoise shell, and cowrie shells, somewhat increasing or decreasing their values, while abolishing the large and small coins. He recast and circulated two types of coins, the Huo Bu and Huo Quan, in parallel. Because the large coins had been in circulation for a long time, he feared that abolishing them would cause the people to continue hoarding them, so he ordered the people to temporarily use only the large coins; after six years, they were no longer allowed to hoard large coins. Each time coins were changed, the people became bankrupt and fell heavily into punishment.